Author: Jennifer S. Ray, PhD, C-SLT

Teaching literacy became a passion of mine while raising my children. The knowledge that I learned through my experiences in teaching literacy at home and in the classroom over the past 28 years fueled my drive to earn a PhD in Education with a focus in Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment. My graduate work centered on the curriculum, instruction, and assessment of literacy acquisition. I have a particular interest in dyslexia and discovering those students who may benefit from early intervention through a response to intervention program. I also enjoy reading, visiting state and national parks, and shopping.

Why Differentiation of Instruction?

Most student didn’t receive the “full, normal load” of instruction during the 2020-21 school year. This means that students may not have ownership of the prior knowledge that is necessary to be successful at learning new tasks that teachers may present to them in the Fall of 2022. In college, students must have received and often prove that they have the prerequisite or prior knowledge necessary to be successful in their current class. With this in mind, teachers need to find a way to present new information without students having the necessary knowledge to be successful in the current lesson.

Differentiation is one tool that can be used to ease the absorption of the new knowledge without having the prior knowledge necessary to digest and own the new information. Differentiation sounds like a lot of work, but the tool is relatively easy to use. Most teachers already use this tool to successfully teach diverse groups of students. Each classroom of students usually includes students that function academically at different grade levels. Most classrooms have students a grade below or above, but some have students that function two or more grade levels below or above the standard for that grade level. This depends on the instructional policies of each state and district, and the current resources available to meet each student’s individual educational needs.

When differentiating student instruction, it is important to know student learning abilities and interest. Students will push through or work through the struggle of completing the assignment if the subject is of interest to them. Teachers can increase student interest through the introduction (attitude) of the lesson or subject. Teachers can also increase student interest in the lesson by the activities used within the lesson, such as allowing students to use their hands for exploration or take a walk to learn about components of the lesson or use a computer to research items of the lesson or allow them to work with a partner. These are all types of differentiation of instruction.

Differentiation of academic lessons may take more planning, as you should take into consideration: (a) the subject being taught, (b) student learning abilities, (c) student learning styles, and (d) the resources available to teach the lesson. For example, if the lesson is about researching animal habitats. The lesson may be taught in a whole or small group setting. The lesson may also include hands on objects, videos, books, etc. The gathering of information may include general note taking, drawing pictures, or answering progenerated questions. The lesson may include a trip to a natural habitat, which may be available on school grounds. The reporting of the information gathered might be an oral report, a tri-fold brochure, a written essay, or a PowerPoint presentation. The lesson may be about a particular interest of the students as a whole, or students may choose an animal of their interest to research.

When designing a lesson based on the academic background knowledge of students, you may need to add depth to the lesson or provide information to students before they can accomplish the lesson. For example: I was teaching a group of students that functioned academically between the of Grades 5 and 12, in the same classroom. The assignment was to analyze sentences and determine if the sentence is a fact or an opinion. Most students didn’t know the difference, nor understood how to analyze a sentence. I began the lesson by discussing the differences of the two different types of sentences, and then modeled to students how to analyze a sentence to determine fact or opinion—instead of handing the worksheet to students. The lesson was followed-up with additional practice and discussions. Another example: I was teaching a group of Grade 2 students of wide-ranging abilities. The lesson was to research animal habitats. Students were given the opportunity to choose the type of animal habitat to research that could be located on a particular school computer application. The application had the text-to-speech ability for students who were struggling to read at grade-level. Students were also given the opportunity to read library books about their chosen animal’s habitat. I chose some student’s library books to feature and use for discussion about how to research and find information, this gave struggling students the opportunity to hear their book read aloud. Students used a brochure template to develop their report. The report was completed in student’s own handwriting using a pencil or colored pencils. This allowed students to write more or less sentences based on their academic writing ability. Students who struggled in writing could use more pictures to described the habitat. Students were also allowed to use the teacher or other students to help them research and formulate written sentences.

The teacher’s ability to differentiate curriculum and instruction may be one of keys to recovering from the academic pause of the 2020-21 school year.

Differentiation of instruction is taking the student ability and learning style of groups of students into consideration, when designing an instructional lesson (Tomlinson, 2010).

Evaluating Assessment—Why Are We Assessing?

Education will resemble a new normal, when we begin a new school year in the fall. This may be a good time to take a deep breath and evaluate how we assess students and use the gathered data. What are the current assessments at the school, district, state, and national levels? Can we combined some of those assessments to serve for multiple items? Can the data from some items be used for other items, but read differently? Does the time spent testing vs the number of hours spent learning make sense? Are we using the data gained from this assessment? There is a high possibility that more students may need extra time to learn and practice new skills this upcoming year. Students’ achievement rates will (mostly) remain a mystery until students return to in-class instruction. Some students may have thrived in their “new” learning environment and be on grade-level. Some students may be a grade or more below the grade-level standard. Some students might have struggled no matter the format or crazy interruptions. Many will need the instruction and practice time to catch-up.

One measurement that should remain is universal screening* of elementary school students (Grades K-8) for grade-level achievement. This battery of short probes gives a good first look at student achievement levels and may be used to progress monitor students as they move through the school year. The probes should be based on grade-level** benchmarks, such as Grade K, phonological awareness and letter-sound correspondences and Grade 1, phonological awareness, sound-letter correspondences, oral reading, etc. Universal screenings also provide a first look at students who may be need instructional supports or deeper assessing. Response to Intervention (RTI) tiers can be developed using universal screening data. Curriculum based assessments and observations can be used to increase the validity of universal screenings and to find students testing false-positive.

Students may test false-positive, meaning the student failed to show his true achievement level on test day—usually very few students. Some students will assess positive for signs of reading disabilities, but not have a reading disability. This may be due to: (a) lack of instruction, (b) lack of practice, (c) another illness-cold, (d) bad test taker, and or (e) their pet died. These students will become apparent as a false-positive during future instruction and observations and or through data of past assessments and observations. A short follow-up assessment may also resolve the false-positive score. Treat each student that tests positive for low-academic achievement and learning disabilities, as if they were until you determine the false-positive. Treating them as a positive for a short amount of time, one to four weeks, is better than ignoring the possibility. Student self-esteem is at stake. Some students will test at the borderline or right above the cut score and should be placed in a “watch” and observe mode to monitor their progression of grade-level instruction. Some students may have parental support to assist in working with them. Some students may have classmate or friend that can help them.

Kindergarteners usually arrive at all different levels. Some will need small group instruction, while others will need more intense instruction to bring them up to grade-level achievement. Students should leave Kindergarten with good foundational skills for learning how to read and write. Every kindergarten student should be able to write a sentence, know their letters-sound correspondences and be able to read a simple sentence before moving on to Grade 1. Many will be able to read short stories and write fluid sentences. Students not at grade-level will likely be in a catch-up mode throughout their academic career.

*Universal Screening: A series of short, easy-to-administer probes of 1-3 minutes used to determine those students who are at-risk for reading acquisition. Universal screening is usually administered school or district-wide three times a year. The screening should identify 90% of the students who may be at-risk for reading acquisition. Universal screening is often used to monitor student progress and as a diagnostic assessment to determine students’ individual learning needs.

**Universal Screening Grade Level Timeline (Ray, J., 2017).

Reading Skill	Column A Gersten et al., 2009	Column B Kashima et al., 2009	Column C Lam & McMaster, 2014	Column D NJCLD, 2011
Letter naming & fluency	Grade K-1	Grade K-1	Grade K-1
Phoneme segmentation	Grade K-1	Grade K-1
Phonemic awareness Nonsense fluency	Grade 1		Grade K-3
Word identification	Grade 1-2		Grade K-3
Oral reading fluency	Grade 1-2	Grade 1	Grade K-3	Grade K-3
Sound repetition		Grade K-1
Vocabulary		Grade 1
Reading comprehension		Grade 2-3		Grade K-3
Listening comprehension		Grade 2-3		Grade K-3
Written expression				Grade K-3
Basic reading skills				Grade K-3
Oral expression				Grade K-3

References

Ray, J. S. (2017). Tier 2 intervention for students in grades 1-3 identified as as-risk in reading. (Doctoral dissertation, Walden University). Retrieved from https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/3826/

Unpacking a Paragraph

Unpacking a paragraph or understanding what the writer intended the reader to understand about a paragraph may be a challenge depending on the complexity and level of writing. The comprehension of a paragraph begins in the first sentence at the word level. Understanding the meaning of a paragraph includes the sequence and punctuation of each sentence within the paragraph. Comprehending a paragraph involves the intertwining of each sentence to bring forth the meaning of the paragraph. Each symbol plays a role to bring forth the intended meaning of the author. There several skills that reader needs to comprehend a paragraph; some are noted below.

Word knowledge. American English is a melting pot of foreign languages. The origin of a word may shed light on the spelling and meaning of the word. Each word is comprised of letters that create a known meaning. In the late 1700’s Noah Webster began developing a central location, dictionary, for students to use to learn the meaning of spoken language in the written format. Webster noted the origin, spelling and annunciation of each word. Word knowledge may be increased with the use appositives.
Knowledge of appositives. Appositives are a word or series of words that describes a noun within a sentence. Appositives give a deeper meaning to words and groups of words. They are usually directly after the noun that they are describing, such as Joan, the secretary, works long hours. Some words have multiple meanings and deciphering the meaning takes an examination of the surrounding words, inferencing and the paragraph topic to know its intended meaning. Appositives help to increase sentence comprehension.
Knowledge of how sentence connectives bring meaning to a sentence. Connectives serve as thought connectors to increase meaning. Some connectives are harder to understand. This may stem from low usage of them in oral language. Most of us would not say: my child was ill today; therefore, I had to stay home today. These types of words are used more often within our writing.
Knowledge of anaphoric relationships. Each paragraph begins with a topic sentence, which usually tells the reader what the rest of the paragraph is going to be about. The topic sentence may give the exact or proper name of the subject, such as John. Another sentence within the paragraph may use another name to refer to the subject, such as him or my friend. This is referred to as an anaphoric relationship. Writers use anaphora to bring clarity and variety to their writing. The reader must follow the meaning from one sentence to another sentence to understand that the topic has remained the same. The reader must be familiar with other possible words of the subject to follow and understand that the topic of the paragraph or story has remained the same. The meaning of each sentence usually affects the overall meaning of the paragraph.

References

Mesmer. H. A. & Rose-McCully, M. M. (2017). A closer look at close reading: three under-the-radar skills needed to comprehend sentences. The Reading Teacher, 0,0, p1-11.

Alphabetic Principle

Our brain is not prewired to read, so we must “train” our brain through instruction and practice. This will develop the connections necessary to process and read printed words. But reading the words is not enough, as one must have meaning attached to the words to comprehend what the words mean. The comprehension component of reading begins at birth, when a person begins to attach sounds to meaning. Learning how to read the symbols or words begins when a person attaches pictures to sounds. Some will learn the name of each individual alphabet letter by accident, most will need to be explicitly taught what each letter is called. This can be tricky as some letters can stand for several different sounds and the sounds of the individual letter can change when they are combined with other letters. Individuals begin learning about letters, letter sounds, and the sounds of combining letters into words as they learn how to speak or communicate orally. This is called phonemic awareness.

Students are typically taught one letter and one sound at a time, before adding or talking about the other sounds an alphabet letter may make. This may seem laborious for some, but very necessary to build an adequate, firm foundation in which to develop fluent reading and comprehension of the written words. Letter-sound correspondence taught using action or movement can lessen the strain. Students should see the letter in print as they are saying the sound. It is also helpful for students to write the letters as they say the letter’s sound. There are programs or video clips that can be used to reinforce and practice letter-sound correspondences. Learning letter-sound correspondences increases students’ ability to decode and encode written words based on the individual sounds of a word.

Students who are dyslexic will often take longer to learn letter-sound correspondences as their brains are initially wired differently. Their brain connections typically develop differently from most individuals. This is also why some dyslexic individuals tend to be labeled as dumb, lazy, etc. A dyslexic brain works overtime to develop new connections between the different parts of brain necessary to process written words into meaning. This often makes students tired or overwhelmed. Students need a safe learning environment to explore the relationships of sounds and letters, without ridicule, as they develop efficient reading highways in their brain.

The University of Oregon (2009) wrote and published an article at reading.uoregon.edu that discusses the concepts and research of alphabetic principle and its components. The article defines alphabetic principle as two parts, alphabetic understanding and phonological recoding. Alphabetic understanding or sound-letter correspondences is the second pillar of structured literacy, which I defined in an earlier blog as the knowing of the relationship(s) between phoneme(s) and grapheme(s). This knowledge gives students a tool to allow them to be self-starters, to begin sounding out (decoding) and spelling (encoding) words on their own. Learning to read is a very complex, interdependent process that takes time and practice.

Structured Literacy Supports All Learners-Dyslexic, ESL

Structured Literacy Supports All Learners: Students At-Risk of Literacy Acquisition—Dyslexia and English Learners

Abstract

Learning to read is a complex endeavor that requires developing brain connections. The brain connections for reading written words begins forming during the development of oral language. The maturing of oral language and reading instruction continue the growth of the necessary brain connections to read and write. Structured Literacy instruction helps to develop and strengthen brain connections for reading and processing written language. Structured Literacy encourages educators to teach the essential literacy foundational skills during the pre and primary school years, so students have a better chance of achieving and maintaining proficiency in literacy.

This article was published in the Texas Association for Literacy Instruction Yearbook, Volume 7, September 2020, Chapter 5, p. 37-43, downloadable at http://www.texasreaders.org/yearbooks.html.

Is Response to Intervention (RTI) for General or Special Education Students?

When I am discussing RTI with educators many seem to believe that the RTI model is special education. In a research article titled The Blurring of Special Education in a New Continuum of General Education Placements and Services, Fuchs et al. (2010) describes that the meaning of RTI is interpreted differently by regular education teachers and those who provide support for at-risk students. General education teachers usually reflect the RTI model through the lens of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (2002)/Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) (2015). Those working in general education usually define RTI as “a reformed service delivery that emphasizes early intervention and the unification of general education and special education, which in turn facilitates adoption of challenging standards and accountability for all” (Fuchs et al., 2010, p. 304). General education teachers support collaboration among teachers to improve student learning and focus more on assessment and instruction than cognitive abilities. This group also emphasizes problem solving and differentiated instruction.

Whereas the educators supporting students at-risk, such as resource, speech, special education, etc. view the RTI model through the lens of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (2004). Their view defines RTI as a model to promote early intervention and to increase the validity of identifying students who may have a learning disability (Fuchs et al., 2010). Educators supporting students at-risk place more value on cognitive, linguistic, and perceptual data to inform the type of intervention treatment. Educators working with at-risk students believe that students who are unresponsive to instruction in Tier 2 should be evaluated by a multidisciplinary team using student data. Fuchs et al. also noted that educators supporting at-risk students recognize that instruction should be evidence-based, explicit, and top-down or researcher determined. This group usually relies more on student data and effective research-based interventions.

The RTI model was designed for educators to develop a multitiered instructional system to deliver standards-based, grade-level, student-supported curricula and instruction based on the current needs of present students and the resources available to support the RTI model at their school. A healthy RTI model should reach most struggling students, freeing-up special education services for students who have the most severe learning needs.

I described a typical RTI model in an October 2018 blog post as having three tiers of instruction, some may have more.

Tier 1 instruction is taught using research-based curriculum and instruction that is differentiated to meet student learning needs. Tier 1 takes place in the general classroom, taught by a regular classroom teacher. Tier 1 should meet the learning needs of 80% of the students. Students who are struggling to meet the expectations of Tier 1 are referred for Tier 2 instruction, using universal screeners and classroom data. Students can skip tiers to better match individual learning needs.
Tier 2 instruction becomes more intense using explicit systematic instruction based on student learning needs. Tier 2 instructions can be taught by regular classroom teachers, paraprofessionals, reading specialist or special education teachers. Tier 2 instructions typically take place outside of the regular classroom, in a small group setting. Students are progress monitored, usually once a week to ensure that the curriculum and the intensity of instruction are meeting student learning needs. Data from monitoring is used to adjust curriculum and instruction. Students not showing progress after a specified time at Tier 2 are referred for Tier 3 instruction.
Tier 3 instruction becomes more intense and individualized. Some students may need more diagnostic testing to better pinpoint their particular learning needs. Tier 3 is usually taught in one-on-one settings by a paraprofessional, reading specialist or special education teacher. Tier 3 in some models is special education.

Each tier of the RTI model typically has a team of educators that support the instruction and movement of students in and out of that tier. Team members usually include the regular classroom teacher, reading specialist, special education teacher, and or the RTI liaison. Team members may also include administrators, parents, community liaisons, and other educational professionals, such as speech pathologist or psychologist.

References

Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S. & Stecker, P. (2010). The blurring of special education in a new continuum of general education placements and services. Exceptional Children, 76(3), 301-323.

Gersten, R., Compton, D., Connor, C.M., Dimino, J., Santoro, L., Linan-Thompson, S., & Tilly, W.D. (2009). Assisting students struggling with reading: Response to intervention and multi-tier intervention for reading in the primary grades, a practice guide (NCEE 2009-4045). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications/practiceguides/.

Kashima, Y., Schleich, B., & Spradlin, T. (2009). The core components of rti: A closer look at evidence-based core curriculum, assessment and progress monitoring, and data-based decision making. Center for Evaluation & Education Policy, 1-11. https:ceep.indiana.edu

Ray, J. (2017). Tiered 2 interventions for students in grades 1-3 identified as at risk in reading. (Doctoral dissertation, Walden University). https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/3826/

Reading Increases Student Power

Making time to “just” read within the classroom should be a priority! Students should have the opportunity to just read. Students should have access to a variety of genres and types of books—picture, comic, mystery, chapter, etc. to find their “happy” genre that provides intrinsic motivation to read. Students increase their ability to read, comprehend, and use the information read each time they read. These skills provide students with the necessary tools for higher academic success in all other educational subjects. Reading written words is a complex interwoven process that provides students the opportunity to increase their personal toolbox in the following ways:

Lexicon—increases each time they interact with a book or read written words. Reading introduces readers to new written words that have the potential to increase their lexicon or mental dictionary. Students may have heard of the new word spoken orally—the meaning may already be stored in their lexicon. Meeting the word in a written format gives them the opportunity to learn how to recognize, pronounce, and spell the word. Many educators refer to this as vocabulary development.
Background Knowledge—increases each time students read. Background knowledge is the backbone of reading comprehension. Background knowledge or what the student already knows helps them to analyze new information. Background knowledge helps students make an “educated” decision about present or future choices. Background information helps students to increase their understanding of the written words.
Social Skills—usually increase when students read. Many non-fiction and fiction writings express some form of social interaction. Some of the written words need to be “deeply” read to understand the social process and its implications. Some of the social skills are inferred. Information about social skills can be learned through reading about how animals interact. Social skills can be learned through stories like folktales, fables or fairytales. Reading provides a platform to discuss the elements of the writing in relation to social skills, like what can we tell by the children’s facial expressions? Or why do you think that they decided to help plant flowers? Or what might have been a better choice for this character? Group discussions about a story usually increase social skills, background knowledge, and analyzing skills—within a “safe” environment.
Writing ability—usually increases each time students read. Reading provides writing samples for students to use in forming their own sentences. Reading written words provides “models” of a complete sentence and different types of sentence structures. Reading written words provides models of different styles of writing, such as poetry, mystery, comparison, expository, fiction, non-fiction, etc. Learning to write is similar to learning how to speak, as the writer is mimicking the writing of others.

Individuals usually make time to complete things that are important to them—students will begin to understand the importance of reading, should they be afforded a regular time to “free” read.

Proven Instructional Models and Technology That Increases Student Intrinsic Motivation

As our nation moves to a more independent or on-line form of instruction students that are more intrinsically motivated will likely be more successful. Students are born with natural or intrinsic motivation—curiosity, ambition, and emotions (Wilson & Wilson, 1921). Student inner, intrinsic motivation usually moves them towards participation in an activity that they enjoy. Student inner motivation may also give them the desire to participate in activities that they may not enjoy, but will move them forward in the completion of a task or goal. Student environment usually creates a desire learn how to read, comprehend, and write. There are also proven instructional methods that usually increase student intrinsic motivation to learn. The following methods may increase student engagement, involvement during on-line instruction.

The first three instructional methods rely on technology. Research has proven that technology in general usually increases student intrinsic motivation to become engaged in the process of learning. Technology is a good tool, but educators need to be mindful of the purpose and the amount of time that students are spending in front of an electronic screen. As the type and amount of screen time may be hindering student reading ability. In Dr. Wolf’s (2018) book Reader Come Home, she states that electronic devices may limit student ability to develop deep-reading processes. Deep-reading involves many connections or parts of the brain to fully comprehend the written words. Deep-reading also requires more energy than skimming. To maintain and increase the brain connections necessary to comprehend written words students need to regularly exercise deep-reading skills as they mature (Healy, 1990; Wolf, 2018). The skills of deep-reading can be taught in a viral environment.

The U-Learning Method uses mobile computers that can adapt to different learning environments, allowing students to learn on location (Hsiao, Line, Fang, & Li, 2010). This type of instruction allows students to have access to resources in the field. U-Learning also allows students to record research notes, video, and pictures. U-Learning can be used for independent or small group learning.
Student web pages usually increases intrinsic motivation (Dredger, Woods, Beach, & Sagstetter, 2010; Reed-Swale, 2009). Students develop and maintain web pages that are overseen by the teacher. Students have the opportunity to write about topics of their interest. Students usually enjoy the opportunity to express their thoughts, while working at their academic level.
Digital applications usually create ambition or intrinsic motivation (Saine, Lerkkanen, Ahonen, Tolvanen, & Lyytinen, 2010; Servilio, 2009; Yang, 2010). Digital application instruction gives teachers a platform to teach students how to problem solve in a non-threatening environment (Yang, 2012). Some digital applications allow for differentiated instruction (Saine et al., 2010; Servilio, 2009). Digital instructional games allow students to visually connect letters and sounds (Saine et al. 2010). Computer applications, digital games can be a positive resource to use within the classroom.
The Project-based Learning (PBL) model usually increases student intrinsic motivation and reading achievement, in particular comprehension (Chu, Tse, Lou, & Chow, 2011). The PBL approach gives students the opportunity to explore, collect information, analyze data, and present findings. The PBL model also gives students the opportunity to select a topic for a research project based on the teacher’s guidelines for that lesson.
Interdisciplinary Units usually increase student motivation to participate in instructional lessons (Opitz, 2011; Chu, Tse, Loh, & Chow, 2011). Research suggests combining two different subjects into one assignment to spark student interest in the instructional lesson. Students may enjoy one of the subjects and despise the other subject; however, the subject they enjoy will usually motivate them to complete the assignment. When literacy instruction is integrated with other subjects or projects of interest student intrinsic motivation and literacy achievement usually improves. Student motivation also increases when they are allowed to choose the topic of study under the direction of the teacher.
The Flow-Learning Model was developed for the study of nature (Cornell, 1998). Flow-learning includes four stages that provide instructors with a framework to present instructional lessons—provides for a natural beginning, middle and end to the instructional lesson. The stages are: (a) awaken student enthusiasm or curiosity, (b) narrow student attention towards the topic of instruction, (c) practice or direct experience of the lesson, and (d) student reflection of their interaction or practice of the lesson (Cornell, 1998). The flow-learning model can give students the opportunity to see, watch, touch, and experience the lesson (Hsiao, Lin, Fang, & Lee, 2010). The flow-learning model allows for all instructional groups and can be adapted for use in the outdoor or indoor instructional setting.

References

Chu, S.K.W., Tse, S.K., Loh, E.K.Y., & Chow, K. (2011). Collaborative inquiry project-based learning: Effects on reading ability and interests. Library & Information Science Research, 33(3), 236-243. doi: 10.1016/j.list.2010.09.008

Cornell, J. (1998). Flow learning. Retrieved from http://www.csun.edu/~vcrec004/rtm351/Flow%20Learning%20Summary.pdf

Dredger, K., Woods, D., Beach, C., & Sagstetter, V. (2010). Engage me: using new literacies to create third space classrooms that engage student writers. The National Association for Media Literacy Education’s Journal of Media Literacy Education, 2(2), 85-101.

Healy, J. M. (1990). Endangered Minds. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbooks.

Hsiao, H.-S., Lin, C.-C., Fang, R.-T., & Li, K.-J. (2010). Location based services for outdoor ecological learning system: Design and implementation. Educational Technology & Society, 13(4), 98-111.

Opitz, M.F. (2011) Transcending the curricular barrier between fitness and reading with fitlit. The Reading Teacher, 64(7), 535-540. doi: 10.1598/RT.64.7.8

Reed-Swale, T.W (2009). Engaging digital natives in a digital world teaching more than web design. Synergy Learning, 22(128), 22-25.

Saine, N.L., Lerkkanen, M.-K., Ahonen, T., Tolvanen, A., & Lyytinen, H. (2010). Predicting word-level reading fluency outcomes in three contrastive groups: Remedial and computer assisted remedial reading intervention, and mainstream instruction. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 402-414. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2010.06.004

Servilio, K. (2009). You get to choose! Motivating students to read through differentiated instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children Plus, 5(5), Article 5. Retrieved November 7, 2012 from http://escholarship.bc.edu/education/tecplus/vol5/iss5/art5

Wilson, H.B., & Wilson, G.M. (1921). The motivation of school work. Cambridge, MA: The Riverside Press.

Wolf, Maryanne (2018). Reader, come home. The reading brain in a digital world. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

Yang, C. Y. (2012). Building virtual cities, inspiring intelligent citizens: digital games for developing students’ problem solving and learning motivation. Computer & Education, 59(2), 365-377. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2012.01.012.

Inferencing is Like Being a Detective

Your mind automatically inferences, deduces, concludes, reasons things all day. If there is light in the room it must be after 6:00am or if the sun is setting it must be around 8:00pm. At times during the day we may consciously focus on a situation to infer the meaning of the situation. We may wonder why a person was frowning or talking very loudly during our conversation. To do this, we usually review other interactions that we’ve had with this individual. We may review things that others have said about this individual. We may review the inference of other similar situations. Then we might begin to infer our present interaction with this individual. Merriam-Webster (2020) describes inference as “a conclusion or opinion that is formed because of known facts or evidence.” You are playing detective examining unseen and seen information, such as a picture or a group of words and analyzing your examination against your current stored information—what you already know to build a conclusion. You are “deep reading” the story looking between the lines or behind the scenes of the words or pictures or situation to form an inference. Many individuals learn how to infer naturally through their environment and will be able to infer or comprehend what the picture or words are trying to convey. Some students will need explicit, purposeful instruction to learn and practice the skill. Below are some examples of inferencing.

Example one, an individual should be able to infer the questions below about this poem by Valerie Danoff.

Jelly Bean

Jelly, jelly, jelly beans.

Belly, belly, belly beans.

Orange, white, black, green

Red, blue, yellow bean.

Many, many can be seen!

All the colors in between.

From one to many beans.

Guess how many jelly beans?

Based on your culture was this poem written by a female or male? How do you believe that the writer feels about jelly beans? How do you think that jelly beans are shaped? What color do you think a jelly bean is? What is a jelly bean? Is a jelly bean a type of food? Why is the poem asking me to guess how many jelly beans there are? Individuals who know what a jelly bean is would be able to answer these questions without much thought or examination of the poem. Those who do not know what a jelly belly is would have to examine the words of the poem to gather the information to infer the previous questions, such as:

- - - - look at the spelling of each word
      - look at the meaning of each word
      - analyze how the words are joined together to form the sentence
      - look at the punctuation used
      - look at word usage-repetition
      - look at how the lines of the poem are related

Example two, when you look at a picture your brain is examining the different parts of the picture and analyzing the information against your stored information to understand the meaning of the picture—not just the seen information, but the unseen information as well. When examining this “pumpkin” picture if you know that many people carve pumpkins at Halloween or if you knew the growing season for pumpkins, you could infer that this picture was taken in the fall. You could also infer that this picture was taken in field where the pumpkins and other crops might be grown. You might infer that pumpkins get their nutrients through their stem. You might infer that someone put them in groups by size. You might infer that this may be a place where you could buy pumpkins or that they were getting ready for market. And so on.

Example 3, when an individual is having an in-person or virtual (where you can see them) conversation, we are usually inferencing to comprehend the conversation. We are listening to their oral words-the tone, the inflections and using our personal knowledge of what is being said to understand the spoken words. We are also watching and examining (unconsciously) their body language-hands, arms, facial expressions and maybe even their clothing for possible clues that may help us to form a better understanding of their words.

Students should be purposely taught how to infer, deduce, conclude, or reason throughout their schooling, beginning in the preschool years. The complexity of the instruction should follow the achievement of the student. This skill can be taught within most subject matter. Most students enjoy being a detective to learn about a subject matter or to answer a burning question that they may have related to the subject matter.

Advantages of Being Dyslexic

Dyslexic individuals will show similar traits in the classroom as they are learning to read and write. Many dyslexic students struggle when they learn that the pictures that they have been developing into stories actually already have words that they must read. Many will try to camouflage this transition; the camouflage will become apparent as students are held accountable for the words on the page. The signs of dyslexia are there during students’ pre and primary school years. Testing for phonology and comprehension has become more prevalent during the primary years, which lends to earlier intervention to ease the movement from oral language to written language. The amount of the book exposure and student environment in and out of the classroom will usually change the symptoms and the intervention process. Most dyslexics will become accomplished and earn a solid income. Some of the more prevalent advantages of being dyslexia are noted below.

Not visible to most. Classmates cannot usually visually see their “disability.” Unfortunately, this can also be a disadvantage.
Curious. Dyslexic individuals are usually curious. I have a friend that began experimenting with how items fit together and thought it might be okay to take the screws out of the seat that held up his highchair. Needless to say, that experiment came to crashing end. His mechanical curiosity led to rebuilding engines during his elementary school years.
Innovative and Creative. Dyslexic individuals are usually innovative and creative. While your discussing how to use the pencil sharpener, dyslexics maybe trying to understand how the mechanisms within the pencil sharpener work and how they can improve the model. Many will know how to fix the pencil sharpener without any prior knowledge of how a pencil sharpener works. Many will create or modify items to suit their needs, as stated by Gavin Newsom, Governor of California, “There’s a creative energy to our approach which I’ve taken to politics to be bold and upfront on issues. I’m not cautious, I’m not reckless, but I’m happy to take risks and that’s big part of being dyslexic” (Griggs, 2020, p. 3).
Kinesthetically Wired. Dyslexic individuals usually see through their hands—kinesthetically. They have the natural urge to touch and feel things, as it helps them put the item in their long-term memory and to contemplate how it works, what it’s for, etc. Dyslexic individuals build pictures through their hands. In addition, most need movement to keep the brain fresh with oxygen.
Picture Thinkers. Dyslexic students are usually picture thinkers. Many dyslexics have a photographic memory that can rewind an event. Many dyslexic students will not feel the need to take notes, but can recall most of the information discussed. They recall vocabulary words in pictures. The pictures usually become attached to the words that describe the picture. Sir Jackie Steward stated, “My dyslexic strength is attention to detail. When your attention to detail is good you notice things other people don’t see as important, but these little things make all the difference.”
Think outside the box. They have the ability to think or analyze things from different angles than others without dyslexia. This lends to innovation and creativity in design and problem solving,
3-D vision. Many dyslexics have the ability to see an object in 3-D. They can usually spin the object around and use this information to analyze the object. This also lends to a sharper peripheral vision.
Self-starters. Many are self-starters. Individual environment will play a role in whether they use their skill of being a self-starter. In the book, The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind, the parents gave their son the freedom and a safe environment to be a self-starter. He went on the develop windmills out of the scraps/trash pile, which led to his country having the ability to pump water to grow crops and not be dependent on rain water.
Perseverance. Many will endure their mistakes or trials before accomplishing their goal. Many have very thick skin that allows them to endure the ridicule and numerous retries to better themselves and others. Again, a person’s environment will play a role.
Good Oral Language Skills. Many will have exceptional oral language skills. This was a major identifier of dyslexia in the late 1800s, early 1900s—student could have an intelligent conversation, but not be able to read the words in a book that corresponded with the conversation. Many had, had an adequate education—most thought sitting in a formal school setting was a waste of their time. Many probably experienced what Philip Schultz felt and described in his book, My Dyslexia, “He looked and spoke only to her, as if I were invisible. It was the way I felt in school, listening to the teacher talk only to the other children, as if she didn’t think I would understand what she was saying, as if it was a waste of time talking to me” (p. 32).
Can Learn. Dyslexics can learn how to use their prior knowledge of oral language to read and write. Most will need systematic, explicit instruction to become average readers and writers. Many will need this type of instruction to just hang-on or gain basic literacy skills. Some will be able to absorb their rich environment to learn how to read. This often takes different partnerships of teachers, parents, and community individuals, like tutors. This will depend on the severity of the dyslexic symptoms and the individual’s environment.

References

Davis, R. (1997). The Gift of Dyslexia. New York, NY: The Berkley Pub. Group

Griggs, K. (2020). 5 Reasons Why Dyslexics Make Powerful Changemakers. LinkedIn post published May 30, 2020.

Kamkwamba, W. & Mealer, B. (2015). The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind. New York, NY: Puffin Books.

Schultz, P. (2011). My Dyslexia. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co.

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