Category: Instructional Groups

The Structured Literacy Model Should Be Present At Each Tier Of Reading Instruction

Many states have mandated that teachers review/learn the components of research-based literacy instruction. The mandated requirements of literacy knowledge and instruction usually follow the Structured Literacy Model. Implementing this information into classroom instructional lessons has proven to be a challenge.

After a bill becomes law, it usually takes time to trickle down through the levels of educators. A new education law is sent to the state education department, where the bill is analyzed and a plan is developed to implement its requirements. State educators are often consulted for the verbiage and passage of a bill, which may ease the development of an implementation plan. Once a plan has been realized, the new law moves to the district level and the components of the plan are analyzed for implementation based on the district’s knowledge and resources. Implementation of the bill may look somewhat different in each district; this will be dependent on the district’s size and resources. Often this means that district leaders need to be educated on the components of the bill and how they might effectively implement the law. An implementation timeline is usually developed based on the wording of the bill and state requirements. Then the implementation process of the new bill then moves to the school level. Again, the educators present may need to complete research and education based on the knowledge needed to begin implementation. Effective implementation of a new bill usually takes place when educators understand the importance or there is buy-in of the legislation. Any new educational law should also be considered for future teacher training programs.

The Structured Literacy model should be incorporated into each tier of literacy instruction (response to intervention (RTI)/multi-tiered system of supports (MTSS). The components and principles at each tier should remain the same, while the intensity of instruction will differ at each level of instruction. RTI/MTSS was mandated in the 2002 No Child Left Behind Act and the 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004). The RTI name can be, at times, confusing as some educators have attached the RTI name to discipline instead of literacy instruction. The method can be effect for both types of programs. I am beginning to see the RTI name move more towards MTSS within research articles. This may change in the years to come. The important thing is that educators specify the type of program – discipline or literacy.

The Structured Literacy model focuses on these components of literacy instruction: (a) phonemic awareness, (b) phoneme-grapheme correspondence, (c) syllables, (d) morphology, and (e) semantics. Learning each of these components is dependent on student oral language skills and how their brain initially develops the highways and byways to grow the necessary literacy skills to effectively process written language. Reading and writing skills are learned skills that require students to grow additional connections to their initial genetic brain processing structure. Most students are challenged with learning how to read and write. Some students who do not have the “normal” brain processing structure, already developed, are simultaneously working to create the “normal” byways and highways and expanding the “normal” pathways to create the necessary connections to effectively process written words. Many of these students are dyslexic and often seem to not possess a learning disability. Structured literacy embraces the following instructional principles: (a) learn the foundational skills of current lesson, (b) systematic instruction, (c) explicit direct instruction, (d) scaffolding instruction, (e)interactive discussion, (f) practice of new skill, and (g) progress monitoring.

Tier 1 should focus on grade-level instruction that meets 80% of present students. The curriculum should be based on state mandated outcomes for that grade-level. The state mandated outcomes are usually based on vetted research and should be adjusted as new information is revealed through valid research. Classroom curriculum should be developed or adopted based on current vetted research topics being taught. Can adjustments be made to curriculum to better serve the students being taught? Of course, but it should remain grade-level. This is when differentiation and scaffolding may be useful to stay true the grade-level task or concept. Each new concept should be taught using the I do, We do, You do scaffolding process.

Tier 2 instruction should focus on students who are struggling to master grade-level (Tier 1) skills. Educators should use data gathered through multiple avenues, like observation or formative assessments. This level of instruction is usually taught to smaller groups of students (1-6) to increase the intensity of instruction. Occasionally, educators may have a classroom where the majority of students are behind a grade-level or two or they are not mastering a new grade-level concept. This is when educators should tap into Tier 2 instructional methods, like breaking down a concept into different components or remodeling from a different angle about how to complete the task. Tier 2 instruction might also revisit previously taught concepts to patch student “holes”.  This might include using more multisensory techniques, such as a chart or graph to scaffold the learning of the concept. Progress monitoring or assessment of skills taught should take place every week or two.

Tier 3 is for students who struggling to own Tier 2 instruction. Tier 3 instruction should be an increase of intensity, with the use of more multisensory tools. This instruction should be based on assessment data gathered through diagnostic, formative, observational, and summative assessments. Tier 3 instruction usually takes place five days a week in a one-to-one group setting. Progress monitoring usually happens every two weeks. Instruction is adjusted based on daily data to better serve the student being taught. Students at this level of instruction usually have an Individual Educational Plan (IEP) or a 504.

It is important to note that not all RTI/MTSS models have three layers of instruction, some have five or six levels of instruction.

Students learn better when taught in their “sweet spot” or zone of proximal development. This is when students are ready for the next progressional step of a topic or task. When students own the prerequisites of a topic or tasks, the topic makes sense and eases their frustration of learning the new concept.

References

Ray, J. S. (2017) Tier 2 interventions for students in grades 1-3 identified as at-risk in reading. (Doctoral dissertation). https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/egi/

Ray, J.S. (2020) Structured literacy supports all learners: students at-risk of literacy acquisition – dyslexia and english learners. Texas Association for Literacy Education Yearbook, 7(5), 37-43. http://www.texasreaders.org/yearbooks.html

The Essential Components and Teacher Education of RTI

A valid response to intervention (RTI) program provides the necessary support and instruction to students who are struggling to maintain appropriate grade-level expectations for reading and math. The program provides different layers of more intense, focus instruction based on individual student’s learning needs. The program was first mandated in the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act in 2002 by United States Congress. RTI was also mandated in the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) in 2004. The mandate remained a part of the policy when NCLB was updated and renewed under the name of Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in 2017. This act was put into place to provide students who lag behind their fellow classmates support earlier in their formal educational career, with the hope of alleviating special education services. It was also determined that the earlier students were supported the less emotional trauma students would endure and the less financial burden individuals would be to the educational process and society.

Essential Components of RTI

The major components of a valid response to intervention (RTI) program are rather simple. How the components are developed or formed and maintained to accommodate the students present increases the complexity of the program. Each program should include three major components: (a) systematic assessment measures-screenings, diagnostic, and progress-monitoring, (b) research-based instruction taught sequentially and at times taught explicitly to meet the educational needs of all present students-instruction in the regular classroom, supplemental and more intensive instruction, and (c) use of current student data to form student instructional lessons. Each program should also have a mode of communication within its infrastructure. Communication that flows between all entities of the RTI program. Each program will seem similar, but different.

Essential Teacher Knowledge

Teachers of a successful RTI program should have the following knowledge and skills: (a) literacy development and instruction, (b) how to use data to inform instruction, (c) how to differentiate instruction, (d) how to collaborate, (e) be a lifelong learner, (f) how to use interpersonal and communication skills, and (g) how to use necessary technology (Bean & Lillenstein, 2012). Teachers should also be knowledgeable about how to use various types of assessments, such as progress monitoring, curriculum-based, and universal screens.

The leadership team of an RTI program is responsible for the oversight and direction of professional develop opportunities related to RTI. The campus coordinator usually heads the leadership team and is often a reading specialist. This person is often the liaison between the district and school. The leadership team should be knowledgeable about teachers current instructional abilities and education. The leadership team should also know what types of on-going teacher professional develop that should take place in order to maintain an effective RTI program. Research suggests that on-going professional develop of a successful RTI program should include the following: (a) systemic curriculum, (b) effective instruction, (c) direct instruction, (d) specified instructional materials, (e) key instructional components, (f) CBM assessments, (g) videos and/or observations of classroom instruction, (h) data graphed against goals, (i) student progress monitored monthly, and (j) decisions regarding curriculum and instruction based on data (Kashima et al., 2009). Professional learning can take place in a variety of different venues, such as one-on-one with district personnel or in a seminar format (White et al., 2012). The leadership team of an RTI program should also be knowledgeable about current research and resources related to effective intervention curriculum and instruction. RTI is a living breathing model that must remain flexible to meet the learning needs of their current students.

References

Bean, R. & Lillenstein, J. (2012). Response to intervention and the changing roles of schoolwide personnel. The Reading Teacher, 65(7), 491-501. doi: 10.1002/TRTR.01073

Kashima, Y., Schleich, B., & Spradlin, T. (2009). The core components of RTI: A closer look at leadership, parent involvement, and cultural responsivity. Center for Evaluation & Education Policy, 1-11.

White, R., Polly, D. & Audette, R. (2012).  A case analysis of an elementary school’s implementation of response to intervention. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 26, 73-90.  doi: 10.1080/02568543.2011.632067

 

 

Developing the Reading Brain Connections is Hard Work!

The brain has elasticity or the ability to grow new connections and prune unused connections. This is an easier task for younger individuals, when their brain has a greater degree of elasticity. No matter the age growing new or different connections or routes of communication between the different parts of the brain for effective reading is usually very tiring. When a person has dyslexia, this impedes the process.

In his book The Teacher Who Couldn’t Read, John Corcoran (2008) describes living a life similar to a prisoner with no way to escape or get out for good behavior. In his 40s John stumbled upon or was talked into trying a program called, Lindamood Bell. He hesitated because no one else had been able to break through and help him learn the skills necessary to read.

Even though he read at about Grade 2, he had wholes or gaps in the necessary tools he needed to effectively read at Grade 2. He first began meeting with his instructional team at Lindamood Bell for four hours a day, after a week he moved his instruction time to six hours a day. He describes his plunge into intense therapy-training like a soldier readying himself for war. John states, “at times my shirt would be soaking wet as I strained to learn the new techniques. I never worked so hard at anything in my life, and I never felt so good” (Corcoran, 2008, p. 201).

John describes that his journey of learning how to read began with phonemic awareness (oral language), learning how to better manipulate sounds of words. He was lacking the phonemic awareness skills that many educators take for granted as this is usually acquired before students enter formal education. Once those skills were learned, he began learning the names of letters and their corresponding sounds. Instructors assisted John in learning how the movements of his face and mouth helped him to create the sounds of the individual letters, letter diagrams, and words.

He noted that part of his issue was a lack of correct sound linkage. Meaning his brain did not accurately connect the right oral sounds with their corresponding letter(s). He lacked sound discrimination skills that are necessary to distinguish between different sounds associated with each letter. He stated that nearly a third of individuals who possess normal hearing “do not have fully developed auditory conceptual ability” (Corcoran, 2008, p. 204). This skill is necessary for decoding words into the individual sounds and their corresponding letters. He noted that he had to use his senses of hearing, seeing, touching, and moving to accurately absorb the skills necessary to read.

After about three weeks, he began to feel the prison walls tumble as “the task went from being hard, physical labor to a fun learning activity” (Corcoran, 2008, p. 203). “I felt my own transition from being physically and mentally exhausted to being relaxed and confident” (p. 203). He began to unmask his deception of not knowing how to read, no longer feeling the need to manipulate his environment to protect himself.

After one month of instruction or 100 hours of treatment in the Lindamood-Bell Learning Process, John “gained 10 years in word-attack skill” (Corcoran, 2008, p. 206) moving from Grade 2 to Grade 12; “three years in word recognition” (p. 206) moving from Grade 5 to Grade 8; and “a year and a half in spelling” (p. 206). His therapy also increased his ability to follow oral directions and his reading comprehension skills.

The Lindamood Bell Program was developed in the late 1960’s to teach students with unreliable auditory perceptions known as Auditory Discrimination in Depth (ADD). The program teaches “students to perceive sounds in isolation and in context and how to produce them” (American Federation of Teachers, 1999). They have other programs such as Lindamood Phonemic Sequencing Program (LiPS), which focuses on reading and spelling. “Combining phonics with auditory discrimination in depth (LIPS) program is what I will call the Complete Intensive Systematic Phonics Learning System” (Corcoran, 2008, p. 209).

Each student is unique having different genetic and environmental factors that may affect students’ ability to learn how to read, making accurate diagnose of individual student learning needs a challenge.

Identifying dyslexic or literacy deficit students during grades Pre-Kinder – 2, when an individual’s brain in more flexible, decreases the dollars to educate and rehabilitate individuals during their teens and adulthood. Identifying them can be tricky! Many states have passed laws making dyslexia a learning disability and many districts have now adopted the necessary assessments to diagnose these students. The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) defines dyslexia as:

“a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge” (Adopted by the IDA Board of Directors, Nov. 12, 2002).

Classic dyslexia or developmental dyslexia is acquired through one’s genetics. These students are usually identified though their lack of phonological process skills. They rely on different parts of the brain to process written words. These students work twice as hard to process written words. This type of dyslexia was first discussed in research during the 1800s. Another type is dyscalculia, which affects an individual’s ability to effectively process math equations. Another type of dyslexia is dysgraphia—a student’s ability to learn how to process information into written language. There are programs outside of public education that can effectively diagnose and treat individuals of dyslexia. I encourage individuals to choose programs that are Orton-Gillingham based and endorsed by IDA.

“A good builder, like a good teacher, uses the best tools and material available, which includes a plan and blueprint” (Corcoran, 2008, p. 210).

References

Corcoran, J. (2008). The teacher who couldn’t read. Kaplan, Inc.American Federation of Teachers (1999). Lindamood-bell reading intervention      program. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/article/ lindamood-bell-reading-intervention-program

What is Partner Reading?

The instructional strategy partner reading looks different depending on the classroom and students. Partner reading provides opportunity for social and academic support. Partner reading also encourages motivation and provides opportunity for practice. This strategy at times becomes the teacher’s extended arms and mouth of instruction. Partner reading usually includes two students reading a book and at times discussing the contents of the book. The benefits are vast. See my post of June 2022.

The biggest challenge to “partner reading” is student collaborative skills. Students bring their individual intrapersonal and interpersonal skills, and knowledge to a group. These skills are combined with their partner’s skills to solve or work through the given task. Some students fall into these skills naturally through observation and participation of social interactions—beginning at birth. Some students will need explicit modeling of what and how these skills are practiced in a group setting. Most students will need to know the “ground rules” of what is excepted and not excepted during partner work in your classroom. The amount of repetition of ground rules will depend on the grade and prior experience of the students participating. Most students like to share and work with a partner.

Educators use different names and definitions for the instructional strategy of “partner reading”. Some of those names and definitions are noted below.

  • Partner Reading. I define partner reading “as two students orally reading a teacher chosen passage or book at their independent reading level, taking turns with their teacher chosen partner to read and listen to a book or passage. Students are intentionally paired higher-level readers with lower-level readers. Each student receives a teacher chosen book to read at their current independent instructional reading-level. While one student is reading the other student is listening or assisting their partner to read” (Ray, 2022).
  • Buddy reading is defined as two students reading a book of their choosing at their independent reading level. This instructional strategy is most often used to pair students of different grades levels, such as Grade 5 students and Kindergarteners reading their independent reading-level book to each other. This strategy may also be used in one classroom. Some buddy reading groups are encouraged to ask questions about the passage read. One student reads while the other student listens. Student are encouraged to sit side-by-side, so that the listener can see the reader’s page. Teachers usually sets a time for students to read—five or ten minutes, or the whole passage. This strategy usually promotes motivation for students to read. Students often scaffold the reading and comprehension process for each other.
  • Paired reading. Reading Rockets (2022) defines paired reading as a research-based fluency strategy for students who struggling with reading fluency. Students of the same reading level often reread the same passage to build fluency. Students are paired higher-level with lower-level reading ability. Students read books or passages of their choosing.
  • Cooperative learning is defined “as students working together, helping each other, sharing their ideas, and assisting their group in achieving mastery over the content material” (Ray, 2017, p. 45). Cooperative learning may exist of two or more students working together to accomplish a common goal or task. Cooperative learning usually increases student academic achievement and creative thinking skills. This strategy usually narrows or closes the reading performance gap.
  • Peer-Assisted Learning Strategy (PALS) is another name type of partner reading. This strategy is more scripted and is often used as an intervention strategy. Peer-assisted involves two students, one of higher-level and one of lower-level working together to accomplish a common task. This strategy calls for one passage or book that is accomplishable by both students (Fuchs, D. & Fuchs, L., 2005). The higher-leveled student reads the passage or book first to model how to read the passage. The lower-leveled student then reads the same passage and retells the passage just read. The PALS instructional strategy also includes paragraph shrinking and prediction relay.

Educators will usually see more growth in students who work in more scripted groups. Scripted group means that students in the group have been given direction as to what they need to accomplish, like reading a passage, discussing the character(s) of a story, orally answer or write questions or come up with a summary.

References

Fuchs, D. & Fuchs, L. (2005). Peer-assisted learning strategies: promoting word recognition, fluency, and reading comprehension in young children. The Journal of Special Education, 39, p 34-44.

Ray. J.S. (2022, June 9). The power of intentional partner reading. The Literacy Brain. https://theliteracybrain.com/2022/06/09/the-benefits-of-intentional-partner-reading/

Reading Rockets (2022). Paired (or partner) reading.  https://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/paired_reading

Developing An Elementary Classroom Book Club

Most of us understand that a book club is a group of individuals that meet to discuss the passages of a common book. There are different types of book clubs depending on who began the book club, when and the book club meets, and why the book club began. How you develop your book club will depend on your current students and instructional program. Students will bring to the table different social and academic abilities that will need to be brought into the process of designing the structure and flow of your book club. Each year your book club may have a different configuration. Elementary students usually begin learning about book clubs beginning in Grades 2-5.

An effective classroom book club will have the following components: a) reading, b) written response, c) observation, d) planning, e) coaching, f) digital tools, and g) assessment (Cherry-Paul, Johansen, 2019). Students will need some assistance and scaffolding to get started and maintain effective function. You may need more patience to implement book clubs this school year, as most students will need more teacher modeling and coaching to function effectively in book clubs. Most students have not had the opportunity to develop the social interaction skills necessary for smooth function in a book club, as they were glued to electronic devices without much “natural” social interaction over last two plus years. This will be especially true for students in the primary grades, as these students haven’t had the “normal” opportunities to socialize in or out of the classroom.

I use the following steps and considerations to development a book club.

  1. Form groups. This is usually accomplished by using student data, as students are usually group by reading ability. Student groups should consist of 4-6 students. There may be some students that need to participate in book-clubs differently, like in a smaller or more differentiated group with only the teacher to accommodate their ability level. You may need to get creative so that they do not feel left out. Another consideration should be student personalities. You may group students of higher-reading ability with students of lower-reading ability, if the book their reading is accomplishable by the lower-readers. I caution putting higher-readers in the mix that will not be engaged at the lower-readers ability. This will also depend on how nourishing the higher-level students may be.
  2. Set-up a tentative schedule of when book clubs will meet. In the beginning you might plan to meet with each group, while the other students are engaged in a different activity. In time all book clubs might be able to meet at the same time. Each classroom will have a different mix of students, so there may be years that the whole class can meet for book clubs at the same time and other years when it will be impossible. I typically will meet with a group of students twice a week—flexibility is key.
  3. Choose a book. Books should be chosen based on student ability. Book topics and genre should be considered to encourage natural student engagement. If possible, allow the students to choose the book. Books chosen at student’s highest instructional level or zone of proximal development will usually yield the most literacy growth.
  4. Decide what types of activities will be completed in relation to the chosen book. This may include writing a chapter or book summary. This might also include interactive discussions about the plot or characters. This might also include a review of vocabulary words before you read. This might also include reflective or recall questions. Engaging students in the passage that they have read usually promotes deeper comprehension.
  5. Develop a way to keep written response activities. Many times, related activities are not completed in one group time. To accommodate unfinished assignments, students might have their own “book club” folder. Students might keep their responses in their classroom “to be completed or must do” folder. Teachers might keep all of their responses in a group folder. I like to use different colors for each group.
  6. Meet with students. Let students know what will be expected of them during “book clubs” or small group time. Never assume that they know how to function during “your” small group time. Each educator usually has similar, but different expectations. Typically, students each take turns to read aloud, moving around the circle or group. Decide ahead of time if they should each read a sentence, a paragraph, or a page before allowing the next student to read. Students should be engaged or following along. Giving students a role during book club usually increases the engagement, like highlighter or pencil person or folder person.
  7. Model how to read. Not all student groups will need this, but most will enjoy you taking a turn to read. They are hearing your voice model how to read a passage. This also gives you a natural pause to ask questions about the passage or model metacognitive thinking. If students are losing their place as they read, have them use their finger or small piece of paper to keep their place. I often use my finger on their book to help them focus, keep their place, and decode words. In time they will not need the scaffold.
  8. Ask questions. Ask students questions about what they have just read or about unfamiliar words. This will assist them to bring clarity and dive deeper into the meaning of the passage. Often students need to clarify their current understanding of a word or passage. Encourage students to take a breath or raise their hand to discuss or clarify a word or passage.
  9. Model how to complete assignments. Are students expected to write their responses in complete sentences? Do students need to use a separate piece of paper? When do they need to answer questions? What types of questions might students ask? How might students respond to other student questions? I often write students’ verbal answer(s) in a central location for those struggling to write the answer, after giving most students time to produce their own written answer. This allows students to begin the process of moving from a verbal to written response. This scaffold is removed as all students become more fluid in writing the answer.

Reference

Cherry-Paul, S. & Johansen, D. (2019). Breathing New Life Into Book Clubs. Heinemann.

Phonological Awareness – Traditional Rhymes

Many students are arriving at school without the phonological awareness skills necessary to develop effective reading skills. The lack of phonological awareness skills may be attributed to a variety of entities. One entity that may be attributed to the lack of phonological processing skills is developmental dyslexia. These students typically acquire this disability naturally through their genetic gene pool. These students develop different connections in their brains that inhibit them from naturally developing and process the right highways to process written language. Another entity is poverty or living in an environment that doesn’t provide opportunity for exposure to rich oral or written language that includes rhyme, repetitive wording, word play, rhythm, etc. This may include traditional storytelling, reading of written books, nursery rhymes and songs. Another entity is that the educational community at-large has thrown out many traditional writings. These traditional writings are part of the fabric that lays the foundation for learning how to read English—oral language. These writings provide natural and planned instructional lessons to learn rhythm, rhyme, alliteration, syllable and phoneme awareness, and word play. These traditional stories and songs also assist in learning how to comprehend. These traditional stories also assist in character development. These writings lend to a variety of instructional formats for lesson delivery that helps students engage naturally in the learning process. These lessons are typically oral.

The following are examples of traditional writings:

  • Row, Row Your Boat – was first published in the mid-1800s. The song is about perseverance. This song includes opportunities to teach alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm.
  • Hickory, Dickory, Dock – was first put on paper in mid-1700s. This nursery rhyme is about the time it takes for the mouse to run up and down the clock. This rhyme also lends a hand in teaching alliteration, time, and rhythm.
  • Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star – was originally written as a poem by Jane Taylor in the early 1800s. This rhyme includes many opportunities for phonological awareness instruction – alliteration, rhyme, and repetition.
  • Pat-A-Cake, Pat-A-Cake – was first put on paper in the late 1500s. This nursery rhyme/song teaches sequencing, rhythm, and graphemes. This rhyme also teaches about the process of making pastry.
  • The Wheels of the Bus – is a fairly new song that was first published in the 1930s. The song was originally written as a song “entertain” students during long bus rides. The song is also good for teaching motion, coordination, rhythm, and alliteration.

Many of the traditional rhymes and songs have been rewritten. For example, the classical nursery rhyme Jack and Jill was originally written about two boys.

Jack and Gill
Went up the hill
To fetch a pail of water
Jack fell down and broke his crown
And Gill came tumbling after (Mother Goose’s Melody, 1791 edition).

Later the name Gill was change Jill and other verses were written to further the “story” and fit the happenings of the time. Some newer versions of traditional rhymes/tales are for the better, some are not. Educators must be steadfast in choosing the appropriate version for instruction.

Students without these ‘natural” exposures and/or correct initial wiring of the brain usually need direct, explicit, systematic instruction that includes lots and lots of practice to overcome their lack of foundational literacy skills. These students typically arrive at school a year or more behind in developing the necessary foundational reading skills. Students that show lack of phonological skills usually benefit from kinetic and visual activities, such as writing or visually seeing pictures, letters, and words. These types of activities are also beneficial for students learning English as a second language and students at-risk of or that have symptoms of dyslexia. These students should receive daily 5–15-minute explicit, systematic instruction to gain the necessary foundational skills to learn how to read. These lessons may be taught in small groups or whole group settings. Small group instruction gives teachers the opportunity to provide more precise differentiation and scaffolding of instruction. While teaching one group of students the other groups can be independently practicing taught skill(s). Small group instruction also lends a way for practice of taught skill(s) using a variety of methods, such as exploration or collaboration that usually increases the retention of instruction. Teaching phonological awareness skills in a variety of methods lessens the often laborious or mundane task of learning these skills.

 

Why Differentiation of Instruction?

Most student didn’t receive the “full, normal load” of instruction during the 2020-21 school year. This means that students may not have ownership of the prior knowledge that is necessary to be successful at learning new tasks that teachers may present to them in the Fall of 2022. In college, students must have received and often prove that they have the prerequisite or prior knowledge necessary to be successful in their current class. With this in mind, teachers need to find a way to present new information without students having the necessary knowledge to be successful in the current lesson.

Differentiation is one tool that can be used to ease the absorption of the new knowledge without having the prior knowledge necessary to digest and own the new information. Differentiation sounds like a lot of work, but the tool is relatively easy to use. Most teachers already use this tool to successfully teach diverse groups of students. Each classroom of students usually includes students that function academically at different grade levels. Most classrooms have students a grade below or above, but some have students that function two or more grade levels below or above the standard for that grade level. This depends on the instructional policies of each state and district, and the current resources available to meet each student’s individual educational needs.

When differentiating student instruction, it is important to know student learning abilities and interest. Students will push through or work through the struggle of completing the assignment if the subject is of interest to them. Teachers can increase student interest through the introduction (attitude) of the lesson or subject. Teachers can also increase student interest in the lesson by the activities used within the lesson, such as allowing students to use their hands for exploration or take a walk to learn about components of the lesson or use a computer to research items of the lesson or allow them to work with a partner. These are all types of differentiation of instruction.

Differentiation of academic lessons may take more planning, as you should take into consideration: (a) the subject being taught, (b) student learning abilities, (c) student learning styles, and (d) the resources available to teach the lesson.  For example, if the lesson is about researching animal habitats. The lesson may be taught in a whole or small group setting. The lesson may also include hands on objects, videos, books, etc.  The gathering of information may include general note taking, drawing pictures, or answering progenerated questions. The lesson may include a trip to a natural habitat, which may be available on school grounds. The reporting of the information gathered might be an oral report, a tri-fold brochure, a written essay, or a PowerPoint presentation. The lesson may be about a particular interest of the students as a whole, or students may choose an animal of their interest to research.

When designing a lesson based on the academic background knowledge of students, you may need to add depth to the lesson or provide information to students before they can accomplish the lesson. For example: I was teaching a group of students that functioned academically between the of Grades 5 and 12, in the same classroom. The assignment was to analyze sentences and determine if the sentence is a fact or an opinion. Most students didn’t know the difference, nor understood how to analyze a sentence. I began the lesson by discussing the differences of the two different types of sentences, and then modeled to students how to analyze a sentence to determine fact or opinion—instead of handing the worksheet to students. The lesson was followed-up with additional practice and discussions.  Another example: I was teaching a group of Grade 2 students of wide-ranging abilities. The lesson was to research animal habitats. Students were given the opportunity to choose the type of animal habitat to research that could be located on a particular school computer application. The application had the text-to-speech ability for students who were struggling to read at grade-level. Students were also given the opportunity to read library books about their chosen animal’s habitat. I chose some student’s library books to feature and use for discussion about how to research and find information, this gave struggling students the opportunity to hear their book read aloud. Students used a brochure template to develop their report. The report was completed in student’s own handwriting using a pencil or colored pencils. This allowed students to write more or less sentences based on their academic writing ability. Students who struggled in writing could use more pictures to described the habitat. Students were also allowed to use the teacher or other students to help them research and formulate written sentences.

The teacher’s ability to differentiate curriculum and instruction may be one of keys to recovering from the academic pause of the 2020-21 school year.

Differentiation of instruction is taking the student ability and learning style of groups of students into consideration, when designing an instructional lesson (Tomlinson, 2010).

 

 

Teaching Sound-Symbol Correspondences

         For me, a joy of teaching is watching a student realize that they have the power (the tools) to analyze and decode words into the correct sounds. This skill can be easy for some students to master, most will need instruction. The type and intensity of instruction will differ for each student. I suggest that all instruction should include practice in naming the letter and its sound(s). This practice should happen each day. Using cards that include picture(s) of an item that begins with the sound of the letter will increase the retention of the sound-symbol correspondences. There are other instructional strategies that can be used in addition to flashcards. Some of these instructional strategies are discussed in the following paragraph.

         The following strategies include three of more of the five senses—hearing, touching, seeing, tasting, and smelling. The first strategy is to match cards of letters with cards that feature pictures of items that begin with the same sound as the letter. There should be pictures that represent all of the sounds that a letter can make, for example G…. /g/ /j/ or E…. /e/ /E/.  Students says the letter and the beginning sound of the featured item when they the matched cards. The second strategy is using a white board and marker. Students write the letter, then say the sound. Or the teacher says the sound the student writes the letter. The third strategy is using sand. Colored maybe a better choice as this usually gives a better contrast and students tend to like color. Pour just enough sand to give about a fourth of an inch layer on a plate, on a table or on deep cookie sheet type container. Students write a letter in the sand and say the sound(s) of the letter. Or the teacher says the sound of the letter the student writes the letter. The fourth strategy is using pudding. This can be used in the same manner as the sand. This is a different texture. The fifth strategy is using play dough. Students use the play dough to form a letter(s). Students point to the formed letter and say its sound(s). The teacher can ask students to form letters by uttering its corresponding sound. Students can use pictures of the letter to help them form the letter. The sixth strategy is using music. Using video that includes sound that students can sing-a-long with or mimic increases the number of senses that students use. Using video that includes motions, along with music and pictures can increase the retention of letter and sound correspondences. The last strategy that I will included in this blog is using a grate (usually plastic). The grate is usually about the size of a piece of paper. The texture should be defined enough that when you place a piece of paper over it you can run a crayon over it to create a picture of the grate. The grate can be used in a few ways. Students trace the letter with their index finger, while saying its sound. Students place a piece of paper on the grate and write a letter using a crayon. Students then say the letters’ corresponding sound(s).

              Sound-symbol correspondences or the relationship(s) between phoneme(s) and grapheme(s) are Pillar 2 of Structure Literacy Instruction. This may be referred to as phonics instruction that teaches predictable or the constant rules of sound-symbol correspondences to produce written language. At this stage students learn one-on-one correspondence, for example the written letter B represents this phoneme or sound. It is important to note that some letters are represented by more than one sound, depending on the origin and spelling of the word. Students begin decoding and encoding words as they begin to learn the sound-symbol correspondences. Student knowledge of the phoneme(s) and grapheme(s) relationships usually increases student ability to read, comprehend, and spell written language.

Book Review-The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind

This is a book review of The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind.  This is an example of a book that would be good to use during book clubs or a whole classroom group study.

Science in general has always been a fascination of mine, this may have stemmed from my childhood in rural America living on a ranch.  However, I have used science as a catalyst over the years to teach literacy.  I have yet to find a student who is not curious about something within science.  When I was looking for a book about STEM education the book, The Boy Who The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind: Young Readers Edition; Paperback; Author - William KamkwambaHarnessed the Wind by William Kamkwamba and Bryan Mealer, jumped off the shelf at me.  The title screams STEM education.  STEM Education is learning about subjects within the disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.  STEM education is taught through an integrated approach; one that offers hands-on and relevant learning experiences.  The book is non-fiction and suggested for ages 10 and up or about Grade 5.

The book is about a boy, William Kamkwamba and how his creativity brought life-long changes for the small nation of Malawi, Africa.  The book, written in first person, recalls how his family adjusted their lifestyle to survive during a famine.  William describes the setting and culture of Malawi.  He also describes the effects on humanity during a famine.  He discusses how he recognized the need to develop ways to overcome the lack of rain that caused the famine.  William describes how he used exploration to develop a contraption to collect and reissue electricity.  He also describes the resources and individuals that helped him to obtain his goal of providing water year-round. 

The Benefits of Book Clubs

A book club, a group of individuals that read and learn from activities related to a book, should be structured to meet the needs of the participants. A book club might meet once a month or daily. Students may choose the book club to join or the teacher might develop the book club. A book club may be comprised of two or more individuals. The number participants for each club will affect the possible activities and intimacy of the group. The types of activities that can be incorporated into a book club are endless. Developing a weekly calendar of book club activities may be helpful, like Monday—read aloud, Tuesday—collaborate. Book clubs are typically introduced around Grade 3. Although, I have worked with groups of Kindergartens that would have benefited from book clubs or small group instruction using a book.

Choosing books for book clubs can challenging. Understanding what type of information, you would like students to glean from the book can be helpful. Asking and answering a few questions before making the final decision may also be helpful. Questions like, Who will enjoy or become engaged in this book? Or What type of information will students learn from this book? Will the information be black and white or will students have to inference the meaning? What is the purpose of this book choice?

Students can benefit from book clubs in multiple ways—a few are described below.

  •  Improve reading fluency. Students usually have an opportunity to take turns reading aloud, listening to group members read, and to following along as others read. Some groups of students will be able to accomplish the task of reading aloud others may need a “coach” or teacher to facilitate.
  • Broaden and deepen their vocabulary bank. Students are usually introduced to “new “or unfamiliar words in each book that they read. Teachers can pre-teach words before they read. Students can identify and write the meaning of new words during tasks related to book clubs. Students may benefit from learning the synonyms and antonyms of the new word. Students may also benefit from attaching a picture to the new word. The new words can be added to a “dictionary” for them to use as reference later. Student discussions related to the “new” word(s) can increase the clarity of the meaning and retention of the word meaning.
  •  Improve comprehension of written words. It is important to note that “a word may produce all degrees of erroneous meaning for a given context, from a slight inadequacy to an extreme perversion” (Thorndike, 1917). Every student will gain different information or insight from a book, as every student has a different environmental background. Some students will need to learn the meaning of words before reading to be able to comprehend the words within the book, others will not need this information to digest the words. Group discussions about the meaning of a passage or book usually increases comprehension.
  • Develop better writing skills. Students can learn and practice how to formulate written responses to questions related to the passage or book. Students can journal their thoughts or a summary related to the reading.
  •  Improve oral verbiage skills. Students can learn the correct pronunciation of words. Students may learn how to have a “healthy”, but respectful discussion about the book. Students can learn how to formulate questions to ask during collaborative work. Students can also learn how to digest others’ opinions or facts into new questions.
  • Development or improvement of research skills. Students may develop research skills through activities related to book clubs. Students may learn where to find information related to the book, like where to find words meanings or what are windmills. Students can formulate questions related to the book and then interview another person who is knowledgeable about the subject matter.

The following books are resources that you may find helpful in developing and maintaining book clubs. Breathing New Life into Book Clubs by Sonja Cherry-Paul and Dana Johansen is primarily for Grades 3-8. This book was published by Heinemann in 2019. The book gives practical ideas for developing and utilizing book clubs. Some of the ideas can be used during literacy small groups, teacher led or independent work. The second resource that you may find useful in developing book clubs or reading groups is The Reading Strategies Book by Jennifer Serravallo. Her book includes practical instructional ideas related to developing skilled readers. Happy book clubbing!

Reference
Thorndike, Edward L. (1917/2015). Reading as reasoning: a study of mistakes in paragraph reading. Baltimore: Warwick & York, Inc. Reprinted by ForgottenBooks of Englan

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