Category: Traits of Dyslexia

Key Components to Diagnosing Dyslexia

Diagnosing Dyslexia is usually tricky! There are common deficits of individuals who have developmental dyslexia that give educators a better idea of who may be dyslexic. These clues may be used to better meet the instructional needs of these types of students. All students benefit from the same type of instruction-structured literacy. Students of inclusion classes or classes that encompass students of different first languages benefit from the same type of instruction, as well.

Not every dyslexic student will show the same outward signs. Students will often develop ways to mask their lack of processing skills for literacy and/or math. Student personalities and their environment effect the amount of outward masking students will develop to hide their lack adequate processing connections.

Many states are now conducting dyslexic screenings 1-3 times a year (often included in universal screenings) to assist in identifying students who are struggling to acquire reading skills and/or may be dyslexic. Teachers also play a vital role in unmasking dyslexic students through their observations. Teachers usually work with students in a small group setting during the primary and elementary grades. Small instruction groups make it easier to observe key flags that usually identify students with dyslexia. Writing tasks or data will assist in exposing current student spelling abilities. Students with dyslexia will often spell the same word different within the same sample of writing.

Students of “classic/heritable” dyslexia usually have orthography and phonology deficits. Some of the characteristics of these deficits include:

“Phonological Issues

  • Sequencing of sound (bran for barn)
  • Omission of addition of sounds (jup for jump)
  • Confusion with similar sounds phonemes (f and th)
  • Limited knowledge of spelling rules (chik for chick)

Orthographic Issues

  • Sequencing of nonphonetic patterns (cloud for could)
  • Confusion with graphemes that look similar (e.g., b/d, p/q)
  • Transposition of letters (e.g., gril instead of girl)
  • Overgeneralization of rules
  • Overreliance on auditory features (e.g., becuz for because)” (Redding, 2023, slide 38)

The earlier a student with the characteristics of dyslexia receives intervention services or structured literacy instruction, the more likely they are to be at their expected level for reading.

Gillingham’s Theory of Phonics Remediation

Gillingham (1956) labored countless hours in the pursuit of an instructional process for students who have language deficits. Gillingham worked closely with Dr. Orton, a neurologist, in his research lab, investigating the struggles in reading acquisition of children referred to Dr. Orton. Gillingham used Dr. Orton’s theory (1955, 1956) regarding language function to find solutions to students’ reading problems. Many of the students who were referred to Dr. Orton had emotional issues and reading acquisition deficits, and students were three to four years behind students of their age.

Most of the students referred to Dr. Orton’s practice had similar characteristics in relation to their learning abilities. Students were often assessed in the higher intelligence range (Gillingham, 1956). However, students often shut down when reading was mentioned. Most students had proficient memories.  Most students also wrote their letters in a mirrored image. All students gave great effort in learning to read, but most of them were often labeled as lazy or uncooperative. Many of the referred students were thought to have emotional issues that were believed to be the central issue in learning to read. Many of the students were tested by an oculist or optometrist for vision issues, but usually, no vision issues were found. Parents were flustered about why their children could not learn to read, but their siblings could learn to read. Gillingham noted that most of the students had a family history of reading acquisition deficits. Gillingham found that many of the students responded positively to other forms of reading curriculum and instruction given by a remedial teacher, and then most of the emotional issues dissipated.

Gillingham (1955) also came to the conclusion that students who struggled with reading acquisition skills could be assessed and taught using a different curriculum than the dominant reading curriculum. This different curriculum and instruction would teach these students how to read and allow them to keep up with their peers academically. Gillingham believed that this new type of instruction would prevent students from experiencing “the heartache and frustration and their parents from the anxiety and expense that is now met when the child is a reading case” (p. 28).

Gillingham (1956) wrote a manual based on her findings about how to teach students to read. The predominant form of reading instruction was whole word. Gillingham used the “reading and spelling with phonetic words” curriculum and instruction for students who were identified as having possible or known deficits in learning to reading (p. 39). The major support systems for students struggling with reading acquisition skills are noted in Gillingham’s 1956 manual, which is titled Remedial Training for Children with Specific Disability in Reading, Spelling, and Penmanship. Gillingham describes the teacher’s role in teaching students with reading deficits. Gillingham also describes current research theories in teaching struggling learners how to read. The roles of school administrators and of parents are also described. In addition, Gillingham included descriptions of technology, curriculum, and student motivation in learning how to read. Community support systems for remedial students are also noted. My next blog will describe Gillingham’s theory about phonics remediation in further detail.

References

Gillingham, A, & Stillman, B. (1956). Remedial training for children with specific disability in reading, spelling, and penmanship. Cambridge: Education Publication Service, Inc.

Gillingham, A. (1955). The prevention of scholastic failure due to specific language disability, part I. Bronxville: N.Y. Academy of Medicine.

 

Developing the Reading Brain Connections is Hard Work!

The brain has elasticity or the ability to grow new connections and prune unused connections. This is an easier task for younger individuals, when their brain has a greater degree of elasticity. No matter the age growing new or different connections or routes of communication between the different parts of the brain for effective reading is usually very tiring. When a person has dyslexia, this impedes the process.

In his book The Teacher Who Couldn’t Read, John Corcoran (2008) describes living a life similar to a prisoner with no way to escape or get out for good behavior. In his 40s John stumbled upon or was talked into trying a program called, Lindamood Bell. He hesitated because no one else had been able to break through and help him learn the skills necessary to read.

Even though he read at about Grade 2, he had wholes or gaps in the necessary tools he needed to effectively read at Grade 2. He first began meeting with his instructional team at Lindamood Bell for four hours a day, after a week he moved his instruction time to six hours a day. He describes his plunge into intense therapy-training like a soldier readying himself for war. John states, “at times my shirt would be soaking wet as I strained to learn the new techniques. I never worked so hard at anything in my life, and I never felt so good” (Corcoran, 2008, p. 201).

John describes that his journey of learning how to read began with phonemic awareness (oral language), learning how to better manipulate sounds of words. He was lacking the phonemic awareness skills that many educators take for granted as this is usually acquired before students enter formal education. Once those skills were learned, he began learning the names of letters and their corresponding sounds. Instructors assisted John in learning how the movements of his face and mouth helped him to create the sounds of the individual letters, letter diagrams, and words.

He noted that part of his issue was a lack of correct sound linkage. Meaning his brain did not accurately connect the right oral sounds with their corresponding letter(s). He lacked sound discrimination skills that are necessary to distinguish between different sounds associated with each letter. He stated that nearly a third of individuals who possess normal hearing “do not have fully developed auditory conceptual ability” (Corcoran, 2008, p. 204). This skill is necessary for decoding words into the individual sounds and their corresponding letters. He noted that he had to use his senses of hearing, seeing, touching, and moving to accurately absorb the skills necessary to read.

After about three weeks, he began to feel the prison walls tumble as “the task went from being hard, physical labor to a fun learning activity” (Corcoran, 2008, p. 203). “I felt my own transition from being physically and mentally exhausted to being relaxed and confident” (p. 203). He began to unmask his deception of not knowing how to read, no longer feeling the need to manipulate his environment to protect himself.

After one month of instruction or 100 hours of treatment in the Lindamood-Bell Learning Process, John “gained 10 years in word-attack skill” (Corcoran, 2008, p. 206) moving from Grade 2 to Grade 12; “three years in word recognition” (p. 206) moving from Grade 5 to Grade 8; and “a year and a half in spelling” (p. 206). His therapy also increased his ability to follow oral directions and his reading comprehension skills.

The Lindamood Bell Program was developed in the late 1960’s to teach students with unreliable auditory perceptions known as Auditory Discrimination in Depth (ADD). The program teaches “students to perceive sounds in isolation and in context and how to produce them” (American Federation of Teachers, 1999). They have other programs such as Lindamood Phonemic Sequencing Program (LiPS), which focuses on reading and spelling. “Combining phonics with auditory discrimination in depth (LIPS) program is what I will call the Complete Intensive Systematic Phonics Learning System” (Corcoran, 2008, p. 209).

Each student is unique having different genetic and environmental factors that may affect students’ ability to learn how to read, making accurate diagnose of individual student learning needs a challenge.

Identifying dyslexic or literacy deficit students during grades Pre-Kinder – 2, when an individual’s brain in more flexible, decreases the dollars to educate and rehabilitate individuals during their teens and adulthood. Identifying them can be tricky! Many states have passed laws making dyslexia a learning disability and many districts have now adopted the necessary assessments to diagnose these students. The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) defines dyslexia as:

“a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge” (Adopted by the IDA Board of Directors, Nov. 12, 2002).

Classic dyslexia or developmental dyslexia is acquired through one’s genetics. These students are usually identified though their lack of phonological process skills. They rely on different parts of the brain to process written words. These students work twice as hard to process written words. This type of dyslexia was first discussed in research during the 1800s. Another type is dyscalculia, which affects an individual’s ability to effectively process math equations. Another type of dyslexia is dysgraphia—a student’s ability to learn how to process information into written language. There are programs outside of public education that can effectively diagnose and treat individuals of dyslexia. I encourage individuals to choose programs that are Orton-Gillingham based and endorsed by IDA.

“A good builder, like a good teacher, uses the best tools and material available, which includes a plan and blueprint” (Corcoran, 2008, p. 210).

References

Corcoran, J. (2008). The teacher who couldn’t read. Kaplan, Inc.American Federation of Teachers (1999). Lindamood-bell reading intervention      program. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/article/ lindamood-bell-reading-intervention-program

Dyslexia and The Teacher Who Couldn’t Read

Individuals are not naturally designed to read. Individuals must develop and refine the “right” brain connections to efficiently process written language. Efficiently is defined as fluently reading written words and gleaning the writer’s intended message. A person’s brain adds, subtracts, and reorganizes read information to develop and refine the highways of connection to process written language. The reading brain connections for most individuals will develop without much fanfare or grit. These individuals are genetically programmed to develop brain connections that communicate with many regions of the brain to process written language.

Individuals who have developmental dyslexia do not develop the same communication routes to effectively process written language. Their brain works twice as hard to process and develop more efficient processing routes for written language. Many dyslexic students seem to be at grade-level or above, because of their good oral language skills. But oral language uses different brain routes than written language to comprehend what is said. Students that are diagnosed or show strong signs of dyslexia usually need direct, explicit, systematic instruction to learn how to read.

This means that for approximately 10-20% of individuals the task of learning how to read is very laborious, making the task at times uninteresting. These students often look for an escape-daydreaming, bathroom, drink, irritate their neighbor, etc. These students are also often labeled as an attention problem, lazy, undisciplined. Making the process of learning how to read engaging, a want to participate in the process usually eases the process of gaining reading skills for dyslexic students.

Many states now have educational laws in place to better assist students with dyslexia and other students struggling to acquire literacy skills. These laws are dependent on those seeing that the laws are put into motion and sustained. The motion and sustainment are dependent on the educators present at each educational site. Many educational sites now have systems to better identify and accommodate students who might have dyslexia. The hope is that no student will have to face the “private prison” that Mr. Corcoran, author and literacy advocate, had to face.

John Corcoran describes, in his 2008 book The Teacher Who Couldn’t Read, his journey of how he learned to read in his late 40s. He invented his own survival methods to navigate a literate world. He managed to muddle, navigate his way through layers and years of education to become a social studies and English grammar teacher. Most individuals didn’t know he couldn’t read or write above Grade 2 or possible they ignored his lack of literacy skills. John states “I began a 40-year battle inside my own private prison” in Grade 2 (p. 20). He describes middle school as a battlefield (p. 47). John wrote, “I felt like I was in a maze at a carnival, only this wasn’t fun. I had six 45-minute classes, six teachers, and a list of classrooms I couldn’t find. I didn’t have any friends and I couldn’t read the schedule or figure out what door to open” (p. 48). By high school I felt “dumb, ignored or dismissed by teachers, evasive, polarized by literate and illiterate camps, angry, and confused” (p. 66). John became an expert at deception, as his parents didn’t seem to know that he couldn’t read either. His father was a teacher who “had degrees or college credits from six different institutions of higher learning and read books like kids eat popcorn” (p.79).

John began the agonizing work of developing more efficient brain connections to process written language at age 48. He is severely dyslexic. Dyslexia is known to jump around in the family trees, depending on the mix of genetics. Dyslexia can jump generations and show up in families of distant dyslexic relatives. Dyslexia doesn’t skip socioeconomic levels or race. More about how he developed the brain connection to become literate in my next blog.

References

Corcoran, J. (2008). The teacher who couldn’t read. Kaplan, Inc.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Interactive Relationship of Letter Knowledge and Phonological Awareness in Learning How to Read

Learning the names and sounds of letters is one of the first steps in reading acquisition. Students often struggle with learning the letters of similar shapes before age four (Thompson, 2009; Molfese et al., 2006). Older students learn and recall letter names and sounds at a higher rate than younger students; older students often have higher cognitive skills. Thompson noted that students typically learn upper case letters before learning lower case letters because the letters classified as having “cross-case visual dissimilarity” are easier for younger students to learn (p. 58). Eight letters are classified as having this cross-case dissimilarity: Aa, Bb, Dd, Ee, Gg, Hh, Nn, and Rr. Learning the corresponding sounds to the letters can also be a challenge. Several studies have found that letter knowledge is related to a student’s phonological skills and cognitive abilities (Molfese et al., 2008; Leppänen, Aunola, Niemi, & Nurmi, 2008; Thompson, 2009). The higher a child’s cognitive processing skills are the higher his rate of letter acquisition. Leppänen et al. and Molfese et al. argued, respectively, that letter knowledge at the end of kindergarten is the best predictor of language skills in grade 4 and in grade 6.

Letter knowledge also involves the idea that each letter has one corresponding sound; some letters have up to three corresponding sounds. The letter sounds also change when the letters are combined with other letters to form words. The letter sounds and rules of letter sounds are part of phonological awareness, which includes a student’s ability to process letter sounds, rhyming words, and segmenting letters within words (Molfese et al., 2006). Phonological awareness is part of the dual route cognitive processing that changes letters into words. Phonological awareness level affects the ability of students to retain individual letter knowledge. Students who demonstrate low phonological awareness skills often need intervention to stay at grade level. However, these phonological awareness skills play a smaller part in reading as students get older. The transition begins

Socio-economic status (SES) can also impact letter knowledge skills for children. For example, children of low SES are usually at a disadvantage when they begin their formal education because they typically have had less exposure to written and spoken words. Parents of low SES are also less likely to have written material in their homes, and they are less likely to read to their children. Parents of low SES children typically have less formal education than parents of higher SES children. High phonological awareness skills will void the effects of lower SES (Nobel, Farah, & McCandliss, 2006).

Phonological awareness skills are more important during the early years of education when children are learning to read (Vaessen & Blomert, 2009). Earlier language skills often predict later phonological awareness skills (Peterson, Pennington, Shriberg, & Boada, 2009). The phonological processing skills of students also determine their rate of letter identification (Molfese et al., 2006). The reliance of students on phonological awareness skills often declines as their cognition develops, and proficient readers use their memory rather than the assistance of phonological awareness skills to decode written words.

Phonological awareness includes ability to process letter sounds, rhyming words, and segmenting letters within words (Molfese et al., 2006). Phonological awareness is a key cognitive function in learning how to read. Students use phonological awareness skills to process pseudo words or non-words, and they provide the rules and sounds of letters to sound out these words. Phonological awareness skills are often used for initially processing letters into words that are coded into memory for future use in reading fluency and reading comprehension. Students’ level of phonological awareness is often used as a predictor for later reading skills. High phonological awareness skills frequently void the effects of lower socioeconomic status (Nobel, Farah, & McCandliss, 2006). Low phonological awareness can also lead to diagnoses of developmental phonological dyslexia.

References

Leppänen, U., Aunola, K., Niemi, P., & Nurmi, J. (2008). Letter knowledge predicts grade 4 reading fluency and reading comprehension. Learning and Instruction, 18, 548-564.

Molfese, V., Modglin, A., Beswick, J., Neamon, J., Berg, S., Berg, C., & Mohar, A. (2006). Letter knowledge, phonological processing, and print knowledge: Skill development in nonreading preschool children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(4), 296-305.

Noble, K., Farah, M. & McCandliss, B. (2006). Socioeconomic background modulates cognition-achievement relationships in reading. Cognitive Development, 21(3), 349-368.

Peterson, R., Pennington, B., Shriberg, L, & Boada, R. (2009). What influences literacy outcome in children with speech sound disorder? Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 52, 1175-1188.

Thompson, G. (2009). The long learning route to abstract letter units. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 26(1), 50-69.

Vaessen, A, & Blomert, L. (2009). Long-term cognitive dynamics of fluent reading development. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 105, 213-231.

 

Alphabetic Principle

Our brain is not prewired to read, so we must “train” our brain through instruction and practice. This will develop the connections necessary to process and read printed words. But reading the words is not enough, as one must have meaning attached to the words to comprehend what the words mean. The comprehension component of reading begins at birth, when a person begins to attach sounds to meaning. Learning how to read the symbols or words begins when a person attaches pictures to sounds. Some will learn the name of each individual alphabet letter by accident, most will need to be explicitly taught what each letter is called. This can be tricky as some letters can stand for several different sounds and the sounds of the individual letter can change when they are combined with other letters. Individuals begin learning about letters, letter sounds, and the sounds of combining letters into words as they learn how to speak or communicate orally. This is called phonemic awareness.

Students are typically taught one letter and one sound at a time, before adding or talking about the other sounds an alphabet letter may make. This may seem laborious for some, but very necessary to build an adequate, firm foundation in which to develop fluent reading and comprehension of the written words. Letter-sound correspondence taught using action or movement can lessen the strain. Students should see the letter in print as they are saying the sound. It is also helpful for students to write the letters as they say the letter’s sound. There are programs or video clips that can be used to reinforce and practice letter-sound correspondences. Learning letter-sound correspondences increases students’ ability to decode and encode written words based on the individual sounds of a word.

Students who are dyslexic will often take longer to learn letter-sound correspondences as their brains are initially wired differently. Their brain connections typically develop differently from most individuals. This is also why some dyslexic individuals tend to be labeled as dumb, lazy, etc. A dyslexic brain works overtime to develop new connections between the different parts of brain necessary to process written words into meaning. This often makes students tired or overwhelmed. Students need a safe learning environment to explore the relationships of sounds and letters, without ridicule, as they develop efficient reading highways in their brain.

The University of Oregon (2009) wrote and published an article at reading.uoregon.edu that discusses the concepts and research of alphabetic principle and its components. The article defines alphabetic principle as two parts, alphabetic understanding and phonological recoding. Alphabetic understanding or sound-letter correspondences is the second pillar of structured literacy, which I defined in an earlier blog as the knowing of the relationship(s) between phoneme(s) and grapheme(s). This knowledge gives students a tool to allow them to be self-starters, to begin sounding out (decoding) and spelling (encoding) words on their own. Learning to read is a very complex, interdependent process that takes time and practice.

Advantages of Being Dyslexic

Dyslexic individuals will show similar traits in the classroom as they are learning to read and write.  Many dyslexic students struggle when they learn that the pictures that they have been developing into stories actually already have words that they must read.  Many will try to camouflage this transition; the camouflage will become apparent as students are held accountable for the words on the page.  The signs of dyslexia are there during students’ pre and primary school years.  Testing for phonology and comprehension has become more prevalent during the primary years, which lends to earlier intervention to ease the movement from oral language to written language.  The amount of the book exposure and student environment in and out of the classroom will usually change the symptoms and the intervention process.  Most dyslexics will become accomplished and earn a solid income.  Some of the more prevalent advantages of being dyslexia are noted below.

  1. Not visible to most. Classmates cannot usually visually see their “disability.”  Unfortunately, this can also be a disadvantage.
  2. Curious. Dyslexic individuals are usually curious.  I have a friend that began experimenting with how items fit together and thought it might be okay to take the screws out of the seat that held up his highchair.  Needless to say, that experiment came to crashing end.  His mechanical curiosity led to rebuilding engines during his elementary school years.
  3. Innovative and Creative. Dyslexic individuals are usually innovative and creative.  While your discussing how to use the pencil sharpener, dyslexics maybe trying to understand how the mechanisms within the pencil sharpener work and how they can improve the model.  Many will know how to fix the pencil sharpener without any prior knowledge of how a pencil sharpener works.  Many will create or modify items to suit their needs, as stated by Gavin Newsom, Governor of California, “There’s a creative energy to our approach which I’ve taken to politics to be bold and upfront on issues.  I’m not cautious, I’m not reckless, but I’m happy to take risks and that’s big part of being dyslexic” (Griggs, 2020, p. 3).
  4. Kinesthetically Wired. Dyslexic individuals usually see through their hands—kinesthetically.  They have the natural urge to touch and feel things, as it helps them put the item in their long-term memory and to contemplate how it works, what it’s for, etc.  Dyslexic individuals build pictures through their hands.  In addition, most need movement to keep the brain fresh with oxygen.
  5. Picture Thinkers. Dyslexic students are usually picture thinkers.  Many dyslexics have a photographic memory that can rewind an event.  Many dyslexic students will not feel the need to take notes, but can recall most of the information discussed.  They recall vocabulary words in pictures.  The pictures usually become attached to the words that describe the picture.  Sir Jackie Steward stated, “My dyslexic strength is attention to detail.  When your attention to detail is good you notice things other people don’t see as important, but these little things make all the difference.”
  6. Think outside the box. They have the ability to think or analyze things from different angles than others without dyslexia.   This lends to innovation and creativity in design and problem solving,
  7. 3-D vision. Many dyslexics have the ability to see an object in 3-D.  They can usually spin the object around and use this information to analyze the object.  This also lends to a sharper peripheral vision.
  8. Self-starters. Many are self-starters.  Individual environment will play a role in whether they use their skill of being a self-starter.  In the book, The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind, the parents gave their son the freedom and a safe environment to be a self-starter.  He went on the develop windmills out of the scraps/trash pile, which led to his country having the ability to pump water to grow crops and not be dependent on rain water.
  9. Perseverance. Many will endure their mistakes or trials before accomplishing their goal.  Many have very thick skin that allows them to endure the ridicule and numerous retries to better themselves and others.  Again, a person’s environment will play a role.
  10. Good Oral Language Skills. Many will have exceptional oral language skills. This was a major identifier of dyslexia in the late 1800s, early 1900s—student could have an intelligent conversation, but not be able to read the words in a book that corresponded with the conversation.  Many had, had an adequate education—most thought sitting in a formal school setting was a waste of their time.  Many probably experienced what Philip Schultz felt and described in his book, My Dyslexia, “He looked and spoke only to her, as if I were invisible.  It was the way I felt in school, listening to the teacher talk only to the other children, as if she didn’t think I would understand what she was saying, as if it was a waste of time talking to me” (p. 32).
  11. Can Learn. Dyslexics can learn how to use their prior knowledge of oral language to read and write.  Most will need systematic, explicit instruction to become average readers and writers.  Many will need this type of instruction to just hang-on or gain basic literacy skills.  Some will be able to absorb their rich environment to learn how to read.  This often takes different partnerships of teachers, parents, and community individuals, like tutors.  This will depend on the severity of the dyslexic symptoms and the individual’s environment.

References

Davis, R. (1997).  The Gift of Dyslexia.  New York, NY:  The Berkley Pub. Group

Griggs, K. (2020).  5 Reasons Why Dyslexics Make Powerful Changemakers.  LinkedIn post published May 30, 2020.

Kamkwamba, W. & Mealer, B. (2015). The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind.  New York, NY: Puffin Books.

Schultz, P. (2011). My Dyslexia. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co.

 

 

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