Author: Jennifer S. Ray, PhD, C-SLT

Teaching literacy became a passion of mine while raising my children. The knowledge that I learned through my experiences in teaching literacy at home and in the classroom over the past 28 years fueled my drive to earn a PhD in Education with a focus in Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment. My graduate work centered on the curriculum, instruction, and assessment of literacy acquisition. I have a particular interest in dyslexia and discovering those students who may benefit from early intervention through a response to intervention program. I also enjoy reading, visiting state and national parks, and shopping.

More Instructional Support Strategies for Dyslexic Students

Individuals with dyslexia have brain processing issues, because their brains did not initially develop the same highways and byways to process written language. But many dyslexic students will have fluid oral communication skills. This may be why it has taken many years for society to recognize dyslexia as learning disability. Some students you will not recognize as dyslexic, others will jump up and down dyslexia. Boys tend to be diagnosed or show higher signs of dyslexia as they seem to squirm louder than girls.

Dyslexic students usually work twice as hard to learn how to read than the average student, as they are developing new brain connections. Teaching all students using rich Structure Literacy curriculum and instruction can reach most students. Taking brain breaks or moments of rest can the increase student motivation. My thought is that any students who is struggling to learn how to read and write should be supported in the process. Each dyslexic student will need different types of supports to develop the necessary highways and byways, as student environment plays a role in the brain development process. The earlier the intervention or supports are put into place the higher chance the student has to overcome the risk of literacy acquisition. The following dyslexic instructional strategies can be effective for any student at-risk in literacy.

Use highlighters or a marking code. A highlighter is a tool that students can use for various tasks. Students can use them to highlight important information that they may need for future tasks, such as writing or reading comprehension. Highlighters can be used to note different parts of texts, such as topic sentence, detail, conclusion, parts of a sentence, etc. Students can use different colors to signify different types of information. Students can also use boxes, circles, underline, stars, etc. to note the same things when different colored highlighters are not available. This technique is helpful to teach/model students by highlighting different parts of written language. This technique can also assist early writers in proof reading their writing.
Read the passage or words aloud at any volume. When students read the passage aloud, they are involving both their hearing and visual senses. Most dyslexic students already have good oral communication skills—they can effectively process heard information. Reading the passage aloud usually allows them to better comprehend the passage. In addition, students are using their visual sense to build or strengthen their brain connections for reading using just their vision. Whisper phones are a way for students to read written words aloud and not disrupt their fellow classmates. Some students will grow out of the need to use both their visual and hearing to comprehend the passage, while others will need to occasional use both senses.
Listen and follow along at grade-level. Students listen to a book on tape and read it with the tape or follow along. This is a good tool for students who can orally comprehend at grade-level, but not read the words and comprehend at grade-level. This strategy allows students to be exposed to grade-level information and it helps them to build and strengthen brain connections for reading to comprehend at grade-level. This strategy should be used along with other strategies to increase student achievement level. This strategy has been used for many years to teach primary students how to read. Students listen to an oral reading of a book or passage and follow along. Some of the computer programs have books or passages that can be read as the words are highlighted, but students need to follow along.
Discussing information read. Developing an environment where all students feel safe to share is key for the success of this strategy. Each student can bring their background/environment knowledge to the discussion. Many dyslexic students have strong backgrounds of knowledge and good oral communication skills. Discussing the read information can assist students in expanding their lexicon or student knowledge about a topic. Student discussion(s) can also increase their information processing highways and byways. This instructional strategy can also assist students in retaining the information read. This strategy can also strengthen student ability to communicate orally.
Encourage their interest, passion. When possible allow students to choose their topic of study. This usually increases engagement and intrinsic motivation. Some students will still “battle” the assignment or parts of the assignment. I usually use science topics during the primary and elementary school years to increase student engagement in a task. Most students can find an animal, insect that stirs their intrinsic motivation to read and write about. The topic can be narrowed, to a particular aspect of the animal.
Assistance in copying words from the board. Some dyslexic students struggle in copying words from the board or from a distance. This could be due to vision issues, which is usually an additional issue—not dyslexia. I usually lend them my notes or ask another student to assist them. Most can copy from a paper that is placed right next to the paper that they are writing on. Interactive word walls are excellent tools for students who struggle in copying from the board.

References

Gillingham, A. (1956). Remedial training for children with specific disability in reading, spelling, and penmanship. Massachusetts: Educators Publishing Service, Inc.

Hinshelwood, James. (1917). Congenital word-blindness. London: H.K. Lewis.

Instructional Support Strategies for Dyslexic Students

This post will reflect more dyslexic or at-risk instructional support strategies that assist classroom management to allow for literacy instruction and acquisition to take place.

Typically, there are, on average, three to five students in every classroom that are dyslexic. Dyslexia is an inherited gift that can be passed down generation to generation or skip a generation or sibling within a natural family. Dyslexia is also culturally blind. Boys tend to be diagnosed or show higher signs of dyslexia as they seem to squirm louder than girls. My thought is that any students who is struggling to learn how to read and write should be supported in the process. The earlier the intervention(s) or support(s) are put into place the higher chance the student has to overcome the risk of literacy acquisition.

The dyslexic instructional strategies discussed below will usually also increase the literacy achievement rate of English Second Language (ESL) students. Students diagnosed with dyslexia and students who are at-risk of literacy acquisition are often overwhelmed. These strategies usually decrease the anxiety and allow students to fully focus on the lesson or task at hand, which allows students to begin developing or strengthening brain connections to increase fluidity of their literacy skills.

Use a different colored folder for each subject of study. This is easier to orchestrate in Grades 3 and up, but can be accomplished in younger grade classrooms. The different colored folders should help students to find what they need a little faster than rummaging through their desk or cubby for their reference material or assignments. This also takes away some of the anxiety of remembering where it might be.
Post the schedule for each day. All students like to know how their day may unfold. This strategy is important for all grade levels. The schedule should be visible so that all students can view it from their seats, this usually increases student engagement. Schedule changes are hard for all students, especially students who are struggling to keep up academically. My schedule usually will show the time and topic. Sometimes I will include the actual name and details of the assignments. This will depend on your group of students and how you wish manage your classroom. It is also good to note future upcoming events. Developing and posting a schedule can also assist the teacher in lesson preparation.
Develop a routine. Routine is closely related to the schedule. The routine is what usually happens at the same time every day or on a set day of the week. The routine may include scheduled bathroom breaks, snack, and topic focused classes, like PE or tutoring that take place outside of the regular classroom. Routine helps students to stay engaged in the topic at hand, as they do not have to worry about when, where, and how lunch or snack may take place.
Develop reminders for you or the student(s). The strategies that you may use for the reminder may be different with each group of students. I tend to set alarms and at times backup alarms in the classroom if something has to be accomplished by a certain time, such as library time or students who need to go to another classroom. I also like to write assignments and due dates on the board. I also remind students to turn in their assignment or projects. Students can also serve as a reminder for other students. Students may have daily planners that they can use to write down the assignments and due dates. If students are overwhelmed with the assignment, they may need a one-on-one follow-up to accomplish the task.
Give brain breaks. A brain break allows the brain to relax from the intensity of learning or practicing of a skill. All students usually need brain breaks, especially dyslexic or students at-risk of grade level achievement. The type and length of a brain break may differ with each student. Some students may enjoy reading, while others may need to stretch. Breaks that include movement of more oxygen to the brain usually increases engagement in the classroom. Many teachers include brain breaks into their normal schedule; some students may need more.
Set goals. Goals can be established for various reasons, such as writing for 10 minutes or staying in their seat during instruction. Ideally, students should be involved in the process of setting the goal(s). This can be accomplished through conversation. It is good to write down the goal and to have discussions about the movement towards the accomplishment of the goal. This saves later arguments and misunderstandings. You may have to set goals based on your observation of student ability, such as once you finish this worksheet you may draw for 10 minutes. Some teachers give brain breaks as incentives for working or accomplishing a goal.

My next blog will focus more on instructional literacy strategies for dyslexic students.

Composing Coherent Sentences

Many young writers may get “stuck” or have writer’s block when it comes to putting words on paper. Some of the block comes from their ability to organize verbal words and thoughts into coherent sentences that convey the exact meaning that they are wanting you to understand. Another block maybe that some students can verbalize a complete sentence, but struggle to write the same sentence on paper. Some student block comes from wanting the sentence to be perfect the first time, as many students do not care for the process of editing their writing. In my 20 plus years in education I have yet to met a student who didn’t want to be able write, many need to learn tools to ease the process. This can be a hard and daunting process for many students.

Syntax* is the study of sentence structure. There can be different variations of a sentence. Some sentences may have more or less words than the sentence before or after it. Words in the sentence can be shuffled around and placed in a different order. Some sentences provide more detail. Reading passages with complete sentences may help the writer to better understand how to put sentences together. Reading passages of different writing styles may also increase student writing ability. The writer may also see how word order may change the meaning of the sentence. Learning to write is similar to learning how to speak, as the writer is mimicking the writing of others.

Instruction of writing sentences should begin simple, for example a sentence must have a noun and a verb to be a complete sentence. This usually begins in Pre-K or Kindergarten. The complexity of the sentence should grow with student ability and grade level. Some students will learn through their natural environment how to increase the complexity of a sentence. Most will need to be explicitly taught appropriate grade level techniques and rules of generating a complete sentence.

There are different instructional approaches that can be used to teach students sentence structure. Some are noted below.
1. Use sentence starters. I like ____________. I can ____________.
2. Cut up a sentence into individual words and have students put them in the correct order. Or have students develop sentences using a “word bank” (like flashcards) of many individual words. Then have students write those sentences on paper or whiteboards.
3. Students write a simple sentence, like The boy ran. Then students may add different types of words or detail to make the sentence more complex and interesting, such as adding an adjective about the boy’s age or their hair color.
4. White boards. I often have students generate sentences on whiteboards, while I am modeling a sentence. This helps to keep them engaged. And I can observe student ability and comprehension of the current lesson.
5. Sentence study. Use mentor text that features the style or sentence complexity that you are encouraging students to use in their writing. Discuss the different features of the mentor text. Students can find different parts of a sentence. Students can also diagram sentences.
6. Develop a word list. This can be a simple column of words that help to describe the subject. I like to develop word webs that help to describe the topic. Students can also develop a list of nouns and verbs about the subject. Students use the word lists to generate sentences.
7. Students analyze their writing, editing. Are there capital letters at the beginning of the sentence? Does the sentence end with an appropriate punctuation? Is there a noun and a verb? Could I add a describing word, adverb or adjective? How many nouns does the sentence have? How many verbs does the sentence have?
8. Student sharing. This allows students to use their writing as a model for other students. This may also give other students incentive to begin. In addition, classmates can point out the positive points of their writing.
9. Give students a diagram or word order to use during an exercise. There are many different variations to a sentence, remember start simple then build the complexity of the sentence(s). Here are a few examples that were described by Dr. Laud (2018) in a webinar titled, Vocabulary, sentence, and micro-discourse strategies for writing! Noun + verb; noun + verb + where phrase; noun + adverb + verb + when phrase; adjective + noun + verb + where + but + noun + verb.
10. Teacher modeling, teacher modeling, teacher modeling-use all subject matters to model complete sentences.
11. During collaboration with a student about their writing, I often find a sentence that may need some more detail and ask the student to add a word(s). Not all students are ready for this type of feedback or challenge. In some cases, you may have to assist them or model how you might increase the complexity of the sentence before sending them away to work independently. Other students can also assist students or give them ideas of how they might include other details in their sentence(s) to make the sentence more interesting. This grows student writing ability
12. I often tell students that I want to feel like I am there. This helps to drive the complexity and detail of the sentence. What does it feel like? What does it smell like when I take a breath? What does it look like? What am I hearing? Have them verbal discuss the detail with you or another student. This helps them organize their thoughts and put them on paper. This can be a very hard task for writers!
Learning how to write can be hard, but teaching others how to write may be even harder.

*Pillar 5 of structured literacy instruction is syntax or the study of sentence structure. The principles that dictate the sequence and function of words in a sentence. These principles are also referred to as the mechanics, grammar, and variation of a sentence.

References
Haynes, C. and Laud, L. (2018). Vocabulary, sentence, and micro-discourse strategies for writing! International Dyslexia Association conference webinar.

Instructional Writing Strategies

Writing is hard work! What should I write? What is the topic? Who is my audience? Which words should I use? Should it be first, second, or third person? How long should it be? What is the point or goal of this writing? What is the format? How many sentences does it have to be? What is a paragraph? Students like to know what directions they should head towards and some idea of what the outcome should look like. Each writing assignment or practice may be a different form of writing that has distinct rules for format and language. Most students like their writing to be perfect the first time, as the innate sense to be the best lives within us all. All questions related to writing lend an opportunity to stretch student writing abilities.

When students are learning to write, I like to give them strategies or scaffolds to begin the process. There are many strategies that can be used to teach writing. These strategies should be adjusted as students grow in their writing abilities. Many of the introduced strategies become part of student’s natural writing process. I described several writing strategies in my last blog post. I discuss more below.

1. Read, read, and read some more. Reading different genres or formats of writing. Ideally, this strategy should begin at birth. Students gain vocabulary and background knowledge that helps them to better explain or argue a point. This also allows the reader learn or become familiar with different forms of writing. I haven’t met a student that didn’t enjoy a teacher reading a novel to them.

2. Analyze, examine, consider, and ponder “mentor” or written passages. Ask some of the following questions. What are they trying to say? Why did they use this word? What does this word mean? Does the sentence have to be written this way to provide the author’s anticipated meaning? Why did they introduce all the characters in beginning of the story? Could they have introduced them at a different part in the story? Why did the author write this particular piece of writing in this order? Would a different format of writing convey a better story or message? Can I use their format to improve my writing? If so, steal the format to improve your writing (Culham, 2014).

3. Start simple and expand. Writing begins by handwriting a letter on a paper or other item used to record written language. Stringing individual letters together makes parts of words and words that convey meaning or semantics. Words are joined together to form a sentence that conveys meaning. The “rules” of sentence formation is syntax*, like there has to be a noun and a verb in each sentence. Sentences become passages of writing to convey a larger meaning or point to a subject(s).

4. Use charts, diagrams. These are often used to teach prewriting strategies that can ease the process of learning how to write. I like to use the development of spiderweb or word-web diagrams that look different for each topic, for students beginning to learn the process of writing. You can also develop a list of words related to a topic. I usually model how to use the words of the web or list to develop sentences related to the topic. In a webinar that I just viewed about writing, Dr. Laud (2018) suggested taking the generated words and separating them into nouns and verbs to ease the process of developing sentences. The type and amount that each diagram is used will depend on the level of writing and the students being taught. Students will continue to use diagrams or charts of some sort to develop different types of writing. Most professional writers begin with some type of diagram.

5. Take time to research or better understand the focus of the writing—background knowledge. It is harder to write about something that you know very little about.

6. Ask students questions about their writing. Their answers can initiate their want to make corrections. Their answers can also become sentences in their writing.

7. Collaboration. This can be tough to implement, as most students also need “quiet time” to focus on their writing or the words will never appear on the page. I usually give students the opportunity to collaborate or discuss their writing with a neighbor to encourage the flow of ideas for five minutes or so and then silence. This can be repeated a few times as students are writing. This will depend on the group of students.

8. Time and freedom to practice. Initial drafts are often the hardest part of the writing process. I suggest for reluctant writers that the focus be on getting words on the paper. Strategy 6 may help in getting words on the paper. Then the words and mechanics of the sentence can be massage by the student to convey deeper meaning and reading fluency.

References
Culham, R. (2014). The writing thief: using mentor texts to teach the craft of writing. Newark, DE: International Literacy Association
Haynes, C. and Laud, L. (2018). Vocabulary, sentence, and micro-discourse strategies for writing! International Dyslexia Association conference webinar.

Engaging the Learner to Write

The next few blogs will be about writing. This first blog will resonate more with online or at-home learning, as we as nation contend with COVID-19.

Writing is not a natural skill; it is a learned skill. Writing is hard work, as students are developing the brain processing connections that allow them to put coherent words on a page. Students should write every day to develop those brain connections. I like to disguise the practice of writing into assignments or tasks that seem relevant and fun. I often use science as a means to get students engaged in the task of writing. The following are ideas that can be used to get students writing every day.

Read a book about an animal or other topic that they may enjoy. When I was with a group of Grade 1 students, we had about 10 minutes of “extra time” before we needed to be at the cafeteria for lunch. So, I took a short book about worms of the classroom library shelf, read the book to them and conducted a short whole classroom discussion about student experiences with worms. Students then wrote a couple of sentences about their experiences with worms. Some students had the time to begin drawing pictures to increase the comprehension of their written words. While they were writing I was able to remind students how to form a complete sentence.
Conduct an experiment. Write observational notes in complete sentences. Students also like to draw pictures to enhance their written description. I like to have students conduct experiments that may last a week or so, as this gives more opportunity to write about their observations. Students usually love to make things in the kitchen, which can provide a natural setting for collaboration, observation of changes, and why those changes may be taking place. Students also enjoy gardening or germinating plants.
Go on a bird walk. Students can write notes about bird habitats, the colors of the birds, the sounds they may make, etc.
Go on a hunt or walk looking for wild flowers. Students can write descriptive sentences about the flowers. Students can also add a sketch to increase their retention of the flower features.
Take a virtual tour of a museum about a topic that is of interest to the student(s). Students can take notes about specified information. Students can take notes about their observations. Observations are usually different, unique to the students and can increase student participation in classroom discussions about the tour.
Go on a bug hunt. Write notes about the bugs that you see along the way. Draw sketches of the bugs.
Analyzing pictures or art. (a) Have students analyze a picture and write complete sentences about things they noticed or questions that they have about the picture. (b) The picture can be used as a starting point for a story related to about the picture.
Write a summary of a written passage. This past school year I was with a group of Grade 4 students that struggled with the idea of summarizing a two-page story. So, you may have to break the passage into paragraphs and have students write a sentence about each paragraph. Once they have a sentence of each paragraph, students can put them into a paragraph format by adding a topic sentence and conclusion sentence. Ideally the instruction should go back to modeling how to interpret sentences within each paragraph to inform the summary sentence. The instruction may also need to include word meanings or other background knowledge about the topic.
Sharing student writing. I have not met a group of students that do not enjoy the act of sharing their masterpieces. The act of sharing is good for student self-esteem and for modeling possible sentences and format for their peers. Some classrooms use this time for student acclamations of correct usage of verbiage, punctuation, etc. I would greatly discourage negative comments by the teacher or their peers.
Take notes during a video. I usually specify the expectations of the notes, like notes must be written in complete sentences and you must have at least 10 sentences related to the video. I usually will ask a few students to read one of their sentences at the conclusion of the video. This can begin a video discussion and give struggling students the opportunity to write another sentence.
Keep a journal of what they are reading. Students can write a journal entry for each time they read. This helps the reader to better comprehend the passage read. Younger readers may need assistance in processing the read information into a summary. This also helps them to better retain the information read.
Writing in a journal. Students could also write a journal entry about specific topic. I used this for students in classroom that had a very diverse student ability. At times I would have them write their interpretation of a sentence, a poem, or even just a word. The journal itself was not graded on their mechanics or grammar, but on their ability to form complete paragraph(s). This freed the writer to focus on just putting words/sentences on the paper. On some days, I would have students read a sentence or paragraph aloud to the class for those students who were struggling with forming a sentence. At times I would write a sentence or two or a whole paragraph on the board to remind, reteach students how to form a paragraph. I like to have students help me form the sentences of the paragraph to increase the “buy in” or engagement of students.
Quick write. The student writes as much information about a specified topic as they can in a designated timeframe, usually 5 minutes. This may not be an exercise for all students, as some may shut down the process of writing altogether. I encourage using incentives or individual goals to increase the buy-in of this exercise. Again, the goal is put as many words on the page about the subject in complete sentences, not about mechanical or grammar.

Happy Writing!

Book Reading Activities

COVID-19 temporarily changed how we live our daily lives, in particular how we educate our youth. Most schools have gone to a “long-distant”, digital format to continue providing instruction and practice for students to continue their formal education. Students have more time to read and should be making this a top priority. This is one of the most important educational practices a student can do during this time. Students should be reading novels or books that have longer story lines. Students should be reading books closer to their reading ability. Many educational sites are offering free downloads of novels for students to read. Most school sites also have books that can be downloaded or read on-line. Students who are not used to reading written words on electronic devices may struggle at reading and processing the written words. So, this may make the process of reading and comprehending written words slower than normal.

The following options are possible exercises that students can do at home to increase reading achievement. Most of these options can be used with either non-fiction or fiction books. These practices usually increase student knowledge and cognition. The exercise of reading continues to strengthen and develop brain connections that increase student literacy abilities. These “brain muscles” should have regular exercise.

Keep a journal about what they have read each day or time they read. This journal can include pictures that convey a character or passage of what they have read.
Write a summary of each chapter, four to eight sentences. Writing a paragraph that has a topic sentence followed by detail sentences or sentences that describe the details of the chapter, and a conclusion sentence about the chapter.
Write a summary of the book. This summary should include details about the beginning, middle, and end. The amount of details that should be included in the summary will be different at each stage of the maturation process. Students can also include details about the major characters and pictures about the different settings and characters, etc.
Draw a picture of your favorite character(s). Students should include four or five colors to express the character. The process is especially helpful for younger students. I have taught many older students who also enjoy this process. Older students should be held accountable for writing about the picture. I often have students write a paragraph.
Described the main character(s). Students might describe what they look like, what the character(s)enjoy, what they don’t like, and how the character(s) spend their time.
Described the setting of the story. Students might describe one setting or several settings of a novel. Students might include pictures and written words to describe the setting of the story. Some of the information displayed by the students may be inferred information. This means that each written description or picture may be different, as we all have different backgrounds of knowledge.
Draw a picture of the setting or favorite scene in the book.
Describe the problem or climax of the book. This is something that not every student can grasp, some may need discussion to fully comprehend or pinpoint the problem or climax of the book.
Face-time (or contact through an electronic device) a relative, classmate, or friend to describe the plot of the story, character, chapter, etc.
Buddy read; this can be accomplished in different formats. Younger students can read aloud to higher level siblings, older students can read aloud to younger students. Students can read the same book, using an electronic device or a phone.
Read to a pet. Most students love to read to a pet.
Read aloud to self. This engages the hearing and well as the visual senses to process the written words. This is especially helpful to early or struggling readers.
Discuss what your reading with a classmate, parent, friend, or relative. This may need to take place using an electronic device.
Read with a parent. The student and parent take turns reading. They might read either every other line of a story, read every other paragraph of the story, or read every other page of the story. The format is usually dependent on student ability. I prefer reading every other paragraph.
Develop a 3-D model of your favorite setting or part of the book. The 3-D model can be made of play-dough, clay, wood, tin foil, beans, paper, or anything that you may have on hand.

Enjoy this time to read and explore, travel through books!

Increasing Student Wealth, Lexicon of Knowledge

Developing student lexicon* to increase comprehension of spoken and written language happens naturally and purposively. The environment that an individual lives in naturally develops their lexicon. For example if you live on a farm, you obsorb the knowledge/language of farm culture. The degree of farm language that you learn depends on the components of the farm that you are exposed to, and your degree of participation in the those components. The learned and stored information about farm life may be relevant in other cultures or life-styles. For example you may learn about record keeping that is applicable in every business. Or you may learn about the components of healthy food consumption that applicable to human development in any culture.

Where I was raised it was natural for most individuals to learn about fresh water fish, it was part of the community culture. It was natural to learn about the salmon run, where in a community near the ocean it may be more natural to learn about sea turtles or tide pools. The habitats, life-cycle, and behaviors of different types of fish have many similarities. Within a purposeful learning environment the study of fish usually gives the opportunity to introduce different cultures, geographical areas, bodies of water, etc. of where the fish reside. The similarities and differences help students to increase their lexicon to comprehend both seen and unseen language related to fish and their habitat. The new learned information about fish is then available to make new conclusions.

In the book How Lincoln Learned to Read,Wolff describes how 12 individuals were educated through their the culture or life-style. This is a non-fiction book that discusses individuals that made notable contributions to America. Some of individuals had great disabilities, some had wealth, and some were very poor. The book includes people and events that influenced their learning. Reading How Lincoln Learned to Read helps the reader to paint a picture of how individuals are educated inside and outside of the classroom and how a person gathers information to understand written and spoken language. The book also helps the reader to understand how early childhood education can influence adult choices.

One chapter of the book describes the education of Belle born to slaves. She was educated by her parents to function effectively within the institution of slavery. This was not the slavery of the plantation South, but of the Northern Dutch who had smaller farms. She had to learn that she was commodity and that staying with her parents could end at a very young age. The chapter also describes how her life evolved into a free woman and how she used prior knowledge to move her forward. Another chapter of the book describes how a girl named, Rachel was raised in hills without the conveniences of modern day technology. The chapter goes on to describe how she lost her father at age 11, forcing the family to move closer to her mother’s family. Where she was able gain a formal education through a private school. The chapter goes on to describe how she used the knowledge that she gained as a child her writing. Some of her writings about nature, the hills, set the stage for present science education. The book also describes individuals such as Abraham Lincoln, Henry Ford, and Benjamin Franklin.

*Students store spoken and written words in their lexicon or mental dictionary. Students increase their mental dictionary through their environment. Student lexicon is always adding new words, pictures, gestures, etc that may help them to better comprehend language. This development begins at birth. Their brain begins attaching meaning(s) to individual tones of sound. Students adjust their stored information as they are introduced to new sounds and their meaning(s). Students also adjust their stored information as new meaning(s) or connections are introduced to the stored information. For example, if you know that dogs shakes when it gets wet, but do not know that dogs may smell when they get wet. Then you experience the a bad odor of a wet dog. Your mental dictionary will adjust your stored information to be dogs shake and may smell when they get wet. The stored information may look similar to a spider web as the information is added and adjusted. Students transfer the stored meaning(s) of tones (voice) to symbols (print) as they learn how to read and write. Student lexicon also helps students to infer or conclude the unwritten or unspoken meaning of a conversation or writing.

Reference
Wolff, Daniel (2009). How Linclon Learned to Read. New York: Bloomsbury USA.

Why are we losing ground in the reading acquisition?

The 2019 National Assessment of Educational (NAEP) reading results show that the national reading scores fell 2% percent in Grade 4 and 4% in Grade 8. This does not sound like much until you put the number of students that one percentage point represents, approximately 1,500 students. One state, Mississippi, continued its positive climb. While 17 states scored 3%-4% points lower than the previous year. And the remaining states remained unchanged from the previous year. This means that the number of students reading at Basic or Below Basic grew from 63% to 65%. It is important to note that this is a sample of students from each state.

So, what is going on? What has created the backward descend in reading acquisition? One plausible reason maybe the time that students are spending in front of an electronic device. Students often spend one to three hours using a digital device at school and then another two to four hours looking at an electronic device at home. During this time students may be reading short messages or posts often written in uncomplete sentences. Students may be spending time scanning headlines or a few sentences of an article. Students might be interacting with the latest electronic game that may offer some occasions to read, usually incomplete sentences. In addition, I am observing that more and more teachers are using mostly “on-line” curriculum or lessons that require students to spend large amounts of time in front of the computer. This may be hindering student reading ability, as time spent in front of an electronic screen may limit student ability to develop deep-reading processes (Wolf, 2018). Deep-reading requires students to read the words at a slower rate, so that the words can move through the circuits of brain to pick up prior knowledge or come alive with meaning. Deep-reading is an interactive activity that uses more energy. Skimming or light reading requires less energy. In addition, current research is suggesting that students struggle with comprehending information in an on-line format (Cavalli, et al., 2019; Kanniainen, Kiili, Tolvanen, Aro, & Leppänen, 2019).

Furthermore, technology/computers change the way students process written language. The brain is an organ that will adapt to function within its environment. If the environment is rich with positive conversations and interactions of individuals of higher cognition then an individual’s brain will build circuits to function in that environment. Research suggests that students who have interactions with individuals of higher cognition usually learn, retain, and reuse information at a higher rate (Vygotsky, 1929). If the environment is rich with limited interactions of individuals and or limited exposure to conversations of higher cognition then the brain will build circuits to function in that environment. The brain needs regular mental and physical exercise of cognition as it matures to develop and maintain connections necessary to deeply process and comprehend verbal and written words (Healy, 1990; Wolf, 2018).

References
Healy, J. M. (1990). Endangered Minds. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbooks.
Wolf, Maryanne (2018). Reader, come home. The reading brain in a digital world. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
Vygotsky, L. (1929). The problem of the cultural development of a child II. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 36, 415-434. Vygotsky Reader, Blackwell. Retrieved from htts://www.marxists.org/archive/Vygotsky/works/1929
/cultural_development.htm.

Strong oral language skills may increase student ability to learn how to read and write.

Children learn oral language through what is “modeled” in their environment. At birth children begin learning speech sounds and patterns through social interaction. Children begin stringing sounds together to form words and sentences based what they hear in their environment. Children connect words to pictures and meaning to interpret the “noise.” A person’s genetic code plays a role in how they form and catalog these sounds and words into meaning. Children begin building their personal “dictionary” at birth through observations and interactions of their environment. Children catalog spoken verbiage with their understanding of the word(s). Children use their personal dictionary to process and comprehend spoken language. Children will attach “higher” functioning words to the simple words as they maturate, such as cut-carve and fun-merriment.

Children use their knowledge of spoken language to learn how to read written symbols and write words. Their knowledge of oral language helps them learn how to decode and encode words and sentences. Children edit their personal dictionary to include the written words of the cataloged spoken words. For example, I was raised on a farm and owned a flock of sheep. So, the subject of biology or science seemed easy to me until I had to sit in a formal biology class. Some of the verbiage or words used in the class to describe the subjects covered in biology class were foreign to me. I was able to transfer my verbal knowledge of the subject, which helped me to learn the “new” words used to described things that were already familiar to me. In addition, I often witness this in the classroom, as students are presented worksheets or exams that use “unfamiliar” words for things that students are already familiar with. Individuals continue to edit their dictionary to accommodate new oral and written information as they maturate.

Teaching Sound-Symbol Correspondences

For me, a joy of teaching is watching a student realize that they have the power (the tools) to analyze and decode words into the correct sounds. This skill can be easy for some students to master, most will need instruction. The type and intensity of instruction will differ for each student. I suggest that all instruction should include practice in naming the letter and its sound(s). This practice should happen each day. Using cards that include picture(s) of an item that begins with the sound of the letter will increase the retention of the sound-symbol correspondences. There are other instructional strategies that can be used in addition to flashcards. Some of these instructional strategies are discussed in the following paragraph.

The following strategies include three of more of the five senses—hearing, touching, seeing, tasting, and smelling. The first strategy is to match cards of letters with cards that feature pictures of items that begin with the same sound as the letter. There should be pictures that represent all of the sounds that a letter can make, for example G…. /g/ /j/ or E…. /e/ /E/. Students says the letter and the beginning sound of the featured item when they the matched cards. The second strategy is using a white board and marker. Students write the letter, then say the sound. Or the teacher says the sound the student writes the letter. The third strategy is using sand. Colored maybe a better choice as this usually gives a better contrast and students tend to like color. Pour just enough sand to give about a fourth of an inch layer on a plate, on a table or on deep cookie sheet type container. Students write a letter in the sand and say the sound(s) of the letter. Or the teacher says the sound of the letter the student writes the letter. The fourth strategy is using pudding. This can be used in the same manner as the sand. This is a different texture. The fifth strategy is using play dough. Students use the play dough to form a letter(s). Students point to the formed letter and say its sound(s). The teacher can ask students to form letters by uttering its corresponding sound. Students can use pictures of the letter to help them form the letter. The sixth strategy is using music. Using video that includes sound that students can sing-a-long with or mimic increases the number of senses that students use. Using video that includes motions, along with music and pictures can increase the retention of letter and sound correspondences. The last strategy that I will included in this blog is using a grate (usually plastic). The grate is usually about the size of a piece of paper. The texture should be defined enough that when you place a piece of paper over it you can run a crayon over it to create a picture of the grate. The grate can be used in a few ways. Students trace the letter with their index finger, while saying its sound. Students place a piece of paper on the grate and write a letter using a crayon. Students then say the letters’ corresponding sound(s).

Sound-symbol correspondences or the relationship(s) between phoneme(s) and grapheme(s) are Pillar 2 of Structure Literacy Instruction. This may be referred to as phonics instruction that teaches predictable or the constant rules of sound-symbol correspondences to produce written language. At this stage students learn one-on-one correspondence, for example the written letter B represents this phoneme or sound. It is important to note that some letters are represented by more than one sound, depending on the origin and spelling of the word. Students begin decoding and encoding words as they begin to learn the sound-symbol correspondences. Student knowledge of the phoneme(s) and grapheme(s) relationships usually increases student ability to read, comprehend, and spell written language.

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