Category: Comprehension

Why Include Morphology Analysis in Literacy Instruction?

Students usually benefit immensely from learning how to analysis morphemes—spelling, vocabulary, comprehension, and word memory. Students benefit across all subjects of education, as all subjects usually dictate that you must know how to read in order to successful pass each subject matter. Each subject contains words that are unique to that subject. Those words paint the picture(s) of that subject, such as in music-symbol, baritone, allegro or in math-adding, multiply, deduct. Research shows that teaching students about morphological awareness usually increases their ability to comprehend written passage(s) (Carlisle, McBride-Chang, Nagy, & Nunes, 2010). In the same article Carlisle, McBride-Chang, Nagy, & Nunes (2010) noted that learning how to analysis words or learning how to break down words into smaller units of meaning shows a strong correlation between morphological awareness and vocabulary knowledge. What is morphology and when should educators begin formal instruction of morphology?

Morphology is the study of word formation. Words are single or a combination of morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning. The different units of a word dictate its meaning, adding or subtracting different units of meaning help to fine tune its meaning. There are different types of morphemes that are used to orchestrate word meaning.

  • Unbound or free – These morphemes can stand alone and are usually the heart or base of a word. These are words like; spell, port, or graph.
  • Bound – These morphemes cannot stand alone. Bound morphemes are added to free morphemes and are generally referred to as affixes, like “ful”, “re”, “il”, “est” or “bi”.
  • Derivational – These morphemes change the meaning or direction of the word, such as hope, hopeless, hopelessly or hope, hopeful, hopefully.
  • Inflectional – These morphemes indicate a grammatical feature, such as numbers or a comparative. These morphemes are usually suffixes, like “s”, “ed”, or “ing”.

It is important to note that a vowel may function as a connector of meanings within a word, such as in therm + o + meter (Donah & White, 2017). There are others morphemes, such as conjunctions that serve as connectors of words within a sentence.

Students begin learning unconsciously about morphemes as they learn oral language. This is when they begin to add and subtract different morphemes (sounds) to form different words of meaning to better communicate their thoughts with other individuals. Students unconsciously build their vocabulary based on their environment. Some students may begin transferring their oral language knowledge to understand written words before they begin their primary school education. Most students are ready to begin discussing the analysis of word chemistry in kindergarten. The timeline will be different for each student. In most cases the student will begin the conversation about the spelling or different parts of word. Teachers might begin the conversation by asking questions about words that are familiar to that student or group of students, like “this” or “his”.

Studying the way morphemes interact, combine, and change the meaning of words seems like a daunting, laborious task that many students just assume avoid altogether. Addressing morphology in spontaneous and planned instruction may ease the task of learning the chemistry of words. Often students ask questions about words or groups of words that lend to the opportunity to have a “mini” word discussion. The depth of discussion about the question should be relevant to the learning level of student(s). Intentional instruction might be included throughout the instructional day within each subject of study. The when, how, and what of the lesson will be dependent on student ability or grade level. The format of planned instruction usually differs, taking into account time and student ability. Some lessons may last 5 minutes, others 30-45 minutes. Planned instruction might include metacognitive modeling, independent practice, small-group word exploration/collaboration, or interactive games. This is vocabulary or lexicon development and comprehension skill development, which are part of the foundational skills necessary to read and write effectively.

References

Carlisle, J.F., McBride-Chang, C., Nagy, W., & Nunes, T. (2010). Effects of

instruction in morphological awareness on literacy achievement: an

integrative review. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(4), 464-487.

https://doi.org/10.1598//RRQ.45.4.5.

Donah, S. & White, N.C. (2017). Morphemic awareness. International Dyslexia

Association Conference-Atlanta, GA.

Unpacking a Paragraph

Unpacking a paragraph or understanding what the writer intended the reader to understand about a paragraph may be a challenge depending on the complexity and level of writing. The comprehension of a paragraph begins in the first sentence at the word level. Understanding the meaning of a paragraph includes the sequence and punctuation of each sentence within the paragraph. Comprehending a paragraph involves the intertwining of each sentence to bring forth the meaning of the paragraph. Each symbol plays a role to bring forth the intended meaning of the author. There several skills that reader needs to comprehend a paragraph; some are noted below.

  • Word knowledge. American English is a melting pot of foreign languages. The origin of a word may shed light on the spelling and meaning of the word. Each word is comprised of letters that create a known meaning. In the late 1700’s Noah Webster began developing a central location, dictionary, for students to use to learn the meaning of spoken language in the written format. Webster noted the origin, spelling and annunciation of each word. Word knowledge may be increased with the use appositives.
  • Knowledge of appositives. Appositives are a word or series of words that describes a noun within a sentence. Appositives give a deeper meaning to words and groups of words. They are usually directly after the noun that they are describing, such as Joan, the secretary, works long hours. Some words have multiple meanings and deciphering the meaning takes an examination of the surrounding words, inferencing and the paragraph topic to know its intended meaning. Appositives help to increase sentence comprehension.
  • Knowledge of how sentence connectives bring meaning to a sentence. Connectives serve as thought connectors to increase meaning. Some connectives are harder to understand. This may stem from low usage of them in oral language. Most of us would not say: my child was ill today; therefore, I had to stay home today. These types of words are used more often within our writing.
  • Knowledge of anaphoric relationships. Each paragraph begins with a topic sentence, which usually tells the reader what the rest of the paragraph is going to be about. The topic sentence may give the exact or proper name of the subject, such as John. Another sentence within the paragraph may use another name to refer to the subject, such as him or my friend. This is referred to as an anaphoric relationship. Writers use anaphora to bring clarity and variety to their writing. The reader must follow the meaning from one sentence to another sentence to understand that the topic has remained the same. The reader must be familiar with other possible words of the subject to follow and understand that the topic of the paragraph or story has remained the same. The meaning of each sentence usually affects the overall meaning of the paragraph.

References

Mesmer. H. A. & Rose-McCully, M. M. (2017). A closer look at close reading: three under-the-radar skills needed to comprehend sentences. The Reading Teacher, 0,0, p1-11.

 

Alphabetic Principle

Our brain is not prewired to read, so we must “train” our brain through instruction and practice. This will develop the connections necessary to process and read printed words. But reading the words is not enough, as one must have meaning attached to the words to comprehend what the words mean. The comprehension component of reading begins at birth, when a person begins to attach sounds to meaning. Learning how to read the symbols or words begins when a person attaches pictures to sounds. Some will learn the name of each individual alphabet letter by accident, most will need to be explicitly taught what each letter is called. This can be tricky as some letters can stand for several different sounds and the sounds of the individual letter can change when they are combined with other letters. Individuals begin learning about letters, letter sounds, and the sounds of combining letters into words as they learn how to speak or communicate orally. This is called phonemic awareness.

Students are typically taught one letter and one sound at a time, before adding or talking about the other sounds an alphabet letter may make. This may seem laborious for some, but very necessary to build an adequate, firm foundation in which to develop fluent reading and comprehension of the written words. Letter-sound correspondence taught using action or movement can lessen the strain. Students should see the letter in print as they are saying the sound. It is also helpful for students to write the letters as they say the letter’s sound. There are programs or video clips that can be used to reinforce and practice letter-sound correspondences. Learning letter-sound correspondences increases students’ ability to decode and encode written words based on the individual sounds of a word.

Students who are dyslexic will often take longer to learn letter-sound correspondences as their brains are initially wired differently. Their brain connections typically develop differently from most individuals. This is also why some dyslexic individuals tend to be labeled as dumb, lazy, etc. A dyslexic brain works overtime to develop new connections between the different parts of brain necessary to process written words into meaning. This often makes students tired or overwhelmed. Students need a safe learning environment to explore the relationships of sounds and letters, without ridicule, as they develop efficient reading highways in their brain.

The University of Oregon (2009) wrote and published an article at reading.uoregon.edu that discusses the concepts and research of alphabetic principle and its components. The article defines alphabetic principle as two parts, alphabetic understanding and phonological recoding. Alphabetic understanding or sound-letter correspondences is the second pillar of structured literacy, which I defined in an earlier blog as the knowing of the relationship(s) between phoneme(s) and grapheme(s). This knowledge gives students a tool to allow them to be self-starters, to begin sounding out (decoding) and spelling (encoding) words on their own. Learning to read is a very complex, interdependent process that takes time and practice.

Reading Increases Student Power

Making time to “just” read within the classroom should be a priority!  Students should have the opportunity to just read.  Students should have access to a variety of genres and types of books—picture, comic, mystery, chapter, etc. to find their “happy” genre that provides intrinsic motivation to read.  Students increase their ability to read, comprehend, and use the information read each time they read.  These skills provide students with the necessary tools for higher academic success in all other educational subjects.  Reading written words is a complex interwoven process that provides students the opportunity to increase their personal toolbox in the following ways:

  • Lexicon—increases each time they interact with a book or read written words. Reading introduces readers to new written words that have the potential to increase their lexicon or mental dictionary.  Students may have heard of the new word spoken orally—the meaning may already be stored in their lexicon.  Meeting the word in a written format gives them the opportunity to learn how to recognize, pronounce, and spell the word.  Many educators refer to this as vocabulary development.
  • Background Knowledge—increases each time students read. Background knowledge is the backbone of reading comprehension.  Background knowledge or what the student already knows helps them to analyze new information.  Background knowledge helps students make an “educated” decision about present or future choices.  Background information helps students to increase their understanding of the written words.
  • Social Skills—usually increase when students read. Many non-fiction and fiction writings express some form of social interaction.  Some of the written words need to be “deeply” read to understand the social process and its implications.  Some of the social skills are inferred.  Information about social skills can be learned through reading about how animals interact.  Social skills can be learned through stories like folktales, fables or fairytales.  Reading provides a platform to discuss the elements of the writing in relation to social skills, like what can we tell by the children’s facial expressions?  Or why do you think that they decided to help plant flowers?  Or what might have been a better choice for this character?  Group discussions about a story usually increase social skills, background knowledge, and analyzing skills—within a “safe” environment.
  • Writing ability—usually increases each time students read. Reading provides writing samples for students to use in forming their own sentences.  Reading written words provides “models” of a complete sentence and different types of sentence structures.  Reading written words provides models of different styles of writing, such as poetry, mystery, comparison, expository, fiction, non-fiction, etc.  Learning to write is similar to learning how to speak, as the writer is mimicking the writing of others.

Individuals usually make time to complete things that are important to them—students will begin to understand the importance of reading, should they be afforded a regular time to “free” read.

 

Proven Instructional Models and Technology That Increases Student Intrinsic Motivation

As our nation moves to a more independent or on-line form of instruction students that are more intrinsically motivated will likely be more successful.  Students are born with natural or intrinsic motivation—curiosity, ambition, and emotions (Wilson & Wilson, 1921).  Student inner, intrinsic motivation usually moves them towards participation in an activity that they enjoy.  Student inner motivation may also give them the desire to participate in activities that they may not enjoy, but will move them forward in the completion of a task or goal.  Student environment usually creates a desire learn how to read, comprehend, and write.  There are also proven instructional methods that usually increase student intrinsic motivation to learn.  The following methods may increase student engagement, involvement during on-line instruction.

The first three instructional methods rely on technology.  Research has proven that technology in general usually increases student intrinsic motivation to become engaged in the process of learning.  Technology is a good tool, but educators need to be mindful of the purpose and the amount of time that students are spending in front of an electronic screen.  As the type and amount of screen time may be hindering student reading ability.  In Dr. Wolf’s (2018) book Reader Come Home, she states that electronic devices may limit student ability to develop deep-reading processes.   Deep-reading involves many connections or parts of the brain to fully comprehend the written words.   Deep-reading also requires more energy than skimming.  To maintain and increase the brain connections necessary to comprehend written words students need to regularly exercise deep-reading skills as they mature (Healy, 1990; Wolf, 2018).   The skills of deep-reading can be taught in a viral environment.

  • The U-Learning Method uses mobile computers that can adapt to different learning environments, allowing students to learn on location (Hsiao, Line, Fang, & Li, 2010). This type of instruction allows students to have access to resources in the field.  U-Learning also allows students to record research notes, video, and pictures.  U-Learning can be used for independent or small group learning.
  • Student web pages usually increases intrinsic motivation (Dredger, Woods, Beach, & Sagstetter, 2010; Reed-Swale, 2009). Students develop and maintain web pages that are overseen by the teacher.  Students have the opportunity to write about topics of their interest.  Students usually enjoy the opportunity to express their thoughts, while working at their academic level.
  • Digital applications usually create ambition or intrinsic motivation (Saine, Lerkkanen, Ahonen, Tolvanen, & Lyytinen, 2010; Servilio, 2009; Yang, 2010). Digital application instruction gives teachers a platform to teach students how to problem solve in a non-threatening environment (Yang, 2012).  Some digital applications allow for differentiated instruction (Saine et al., 2010; Servilio, 2009).  Digital instructional games allow students to visually connect letters and sounds (Saine et al. 2010).  Computer applications, digital games can be a positive resource to use within the classroom.
  • The Project-based Learning (PBL) model usually increases student intrinsic motivation and reading achievement, in particular comprehension (Chu, Tse, Lou, & Chow, 2011). The PBL approach gives students the opportunity to explore, collect information, analyze data, and present findings.  The PBL model also gives students the opportunity to select a topic for a research project based on the teacher’s guidelines for that lesson.
  • Interdisciplinary Units usually increase student motivation to participate in instructional lessons (Opitz, 2011; Chu, Tse, Loh, & Chow, 2011). Research suggests combining two different subjects into one assignment to spark student interest in the instructional lesson.  Students may enjoy one of the subjects and despise the other subject; however, the subject they enjoy will usually motivate them to complete the assignment.  When literacy instruction is integrated with other subjects or projects of interest student intrinsic motivation and literacy achievement usually improves.  Student motivation also increases when they are allowed to choose the topic of study under the direction of the teacher.
  • The Flow-Learning Model was developed for the study of nature (Cornell, 1998). Flow-learning includes four stages that provide instructors with a framework to present instructional lessons—provides for a natural beginning, middle and end to the instructional lesson.   The stages are: (a) awaken student enthusiasm or curiosity, (b) narrow student attention towards the topic of instruction, (c) practice or direct experience of the lesson, and (d) student reflection of their interaction or practice of the lesson (Cornell, 1998).  The flow-learning model can give students the opportunity to see, watch, touch, and experience the lesson (Hsiao, Lin, Fang, & Lee, 2010).  The flow-learning model allows for all instructional groups and can be adapted for use in the outdoor or indoor instructional setting.

References

Chu, S.K.W., Tse, S.K., Loh, E.K.Y., & Chow, K. (2011).  Collaborative inquiry project-based learning: Effects on reading ability and interests. Library & Information Science  Research, 33(3), 236-243.  doi: 10.1016/j.list.2010.09.008

Cornell, J. (1998).  Flow learning.  Retrieved from http://www.csun.edu/~vcrec004/rtm351/Flow%20Learning%20Summary.pdf

Dredger, K., Woods, D., Beach, C., & Sagstetter, V. (2010).  Engage me: using new literacies to create third space classrooms that engage student writers. The National Association for Media Literacy Education’s Journal of Media Literacy Education, 2(2), 85-101.

Healy, J. M. (1990).  Endangered Minds.  New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbooks.

Hsiao, H.-S., Lin, C.-C., Fang, R.-T., & Li, K.-J. (2010). Location based services for outdoor ecological learning system: Design and implementation. Educational Technology & Society, 13(4), 98-111.

Opitz, M.F. (2011) Transcending the curricular barrier between fitness and reading with fitlit. The Reading Teacher, 64(7), 535-540.  doi: 10.1598/RT.64.7.8

Reed-Swale, T.W (2009). Engaging digital natives in a digital world teaching more than web design. Synergy Learning, 22(128), 22-25.

Saine, N.L., Lerkkanen, M.-K., Ahonen, T., Tolvanen, A., & Lyytinen, H. (2010). Predicting word-level reading fluency outcomes in three contrastive groups: Remedial and computer assisted remedial reading intervention, and mainstream instruction. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 402-414. doi:  10.1016/j.lindif.2010.06.004

Servilio, K. (2009).  You get to choose! Motivating students to read through differentiated instruction.  Teaching Exceptional Children Plus, 5(5), Article 5.  Retrieved November 7, 2012 from http://escholarship.bc.edu/education/tecplus/vol5/iss5/art5

Wilson, H.B., & Wilson, G.M. (1921). The motivation of school work. Cambridge, MA: The Riverside Press.

Wolf, Maryanne (2018).  Reader, come home.  The reading brain in a digital world. New York, NY:  HarperCollins.

Yang, C. Y. (2012). Building virtual cities, inspiring intelligent citizens: digital games for developing students’ problem solving and learning motivation. Computer & Education, 59(2), 365-377.  doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2012.01.012.

 

Inferencing is Like Being a Detective

Your mind automatically inferences, deduces, concludes, reasons things all day.  If there is light in the room it must be after 6:00am or if the sun is setting it must be around 8:00pm.  At times during the day we may consciously focus on a situation to infer the meaning of the situation.  We may wonder why a person was frowning or talking very loudly during our conversation.  To do this, we usually review other interactions that we’ve had with this individual.  We may review things that others have said about this individual.  We may review the inference of other similar situations.  Then we might begin to infer our present interaction with this individual.  Merriam-Webster (2020) describes inference as “a conclusion or opinion that is formed because of known facts or evidence.”  You are playing detective examining unseen and seen information, such as a picture or a group of words and analyzing your examination against your current stored information—what you already know to build a conclusion.  You are “deep reading” the story looking between the lines or behind the scenes of the words or pictures or situation to form an inference.  Many individuals learn how to infer naturally through their environment and will be able to infer or comprehend what the picture or words are trying to convey.  Some students will need explicit, purposeful instruction to learn and practice the skill. Below are some examples of inferencing.

Example one, an individual should be able to infer the questions below about this poem by Valerie Danoff.

Jelly Bean

Jelly, jelly, jelly beans.

Belly, belly, belly beans.

Orange, white, black, green

Red, blue, yellow bean.

Many, many can be seen!

All the colors in between.

From one to many beans.

Guess how many jelly beans?

Based on your culture was this poem written by a female or male?  How do you believe that the writer feels about jelly beans?  How do you think that jelly beans are shaped?  What color do you think a jelly bean is?  What is a jelly bean?  Is a jelly bean a type of food?  Why is the poem asking me to guess how many jelly beans there are?  Individuals who know what a jelly bean is would be able to answer these questions without much thought or examination of the poem.  Those who do not know what a jelly belly is would have to examine the words of the poem to gather the information to infer the previous questions, such as:

          • look at the spelling of each word
          • look at the meaning of each word
          • analyze how the words are joined together to form the sentence
          • look at the punctuation used
          • look at word usage-repetition
          • look at how the lines of the poem are related

Example two, when you look at a picture your brain is examining the different parts of the picture and analyzing the information against your stored information to understand the meaning of the picture—not just the seen information, but the unseen information as well.  When examining this “pumpkin” picture if you know that many people carve pumpkins at Halloween or if you knew the growing season for pumpkins, you could infer that this picture was taken in the fall.  You could also infer that this picture was taken in field where the pumpkins and other crops might be grown.  You might infer that pumpkins get their nutrients through their stem.  You might infer that someone put them in groups by size.  You might infer that this may be a place where you could buy pumpkins or that they were getting ready for market.  And so on.

Example 3, when an individual is having an in-person or virtual (where you can see them) conversation, we are usually inferencing to comprehend the conversation.  We are listening to their oral words-the tone, the inflections and using our personal knowledge of what is being said to understand the spoken words.  We are also watching and examining (unconsciously) their body language-hands, arms, facial expressions and maybe even their clothing for possible clues that may help us to form a better understanding of their words.

Students should be purposely taught how to infer, deduce, conclude, or reason throughout their schooling, beginning in the preschool years.  The complexity of the instruction should follow the achievement of the student.  This skill can be taught within most subject matter.  Most students enjoy being a detective to learn about a subject matter or to answer a burning question that they may have related to the subject matter.

Instructional Writing Strategies

 

 

Writing is hard work! What should I write? What is the topic? Who is my audience? Which words should I use? Should it be first, second, or third person? How long should it be? What is the point or goal of this writing? What is the format? How many sentences does it have to be? What is a paragraph? Students like to know what directions they should head towards and some idea of what the outcome should look like. Each writing assignment or practice may be a different form of writing that has distinct rules for format and language. Most students like their writing to be perfect the first time, as the innate sense to be the best lives within us all. All questions related to writing lend an opportunity to stretch student writing abilities.

When students are learning to write, I like to give them strategies or scaffolds to begin the process. There are many strategies that can be used to teach writing. These strategies should be adjusted as students grow in their writing abilities. Many of the introduced strategies become part of student’s natural writing process. I described several writing strategies in my last blog post. I discuss more below.

1. Read, read, and read some more. Reading different genres or formats of writing. Ideally, this strategy should begin at birth. Students gain vocabulary and background knowledge that helps them to better explain or argue a point. This also allows the reader learn or become familiar with different forms of writing. I haven’t met a student that didn’t enjoy a teacher reading a novel to them.

2. Analyze, examine, consider, and ponder “mentor” or written passages. Ask some of the following questions. What are they trying to say? Why did they use this word? What does this word mean? Does the sentence have to be written this way to provide the author’s anticipated meaning? Why did they introduce all the characters in beginning of the story? Could they have introduced them at a different part in the story? Why did the author write this particular piece of writing in this order? Would a different format of writing convey a better story or message? Can I use their format to improve my writing? If so, steal the format to improve your writing (Culham, 2014).

3. Start simple and expand. Writing begins by handwriting a letter on a paper or other item used to record written language. Stringing individual letters together makes parts of words and words that convey meaning or semantics. Words are joined together to form a sentence that conveys meaning. The “rules” of sentence formation is syntax*, like there has to be a noun and a verb in each sentence. Sentences become passages of writing to convey a larger meaning or point to a subject(s).

4. Use charts, diagrams. These are often used to teach prewriting strategies that can ease the process of learning how to write. I like to use the development of spiderweb or word-web diagrams that look different for each topic, for students beginning to learn the process of writing. You can also develop a list of words related to a topic. I usually model how to use the words of the web or list to develop sentences related to the topic. In a webinar that I just viewed about writing, Dr. Laud (2018) suggested taking the generated words and separating them into nouns and verbs to ease the process of developing sentences. The type and amount that each diagram is used will depend on the level of writing and the students being taught. Students will continue to use diagrams or charts of some sort to develop different types of writing. Most professional writers begin with some type of diagram.

5. Take time to research or better understand the focus of the writing—background knowledge. It is harder to write about something that you know very little about.

6. Ask students questions about their writing. Their answers can initiate their want to make corrections. Their answers can also become sentences in their writing.

7. Collaboration. This can be tough to implement, as most students also need “quiet time” to focus on their writing or the words will never appear on the page. I usually give students the opportunity to collaborate or discuss their writing with a neighbor to encourage the flow of ideas for five minutes or so and then silence. This can be repeated a few times as students are writing. This will depend on the group of students.

8. Time and freedom to practice. Initial drafts are often the hardest part of the writing process. I suggest for reluctant writers that the focus be on getting words on the paper. Strategy 6 may help in getting words on the paper. Then the words and mechanics of the sentence can be massage by the student to convey deeper meaning and reading fluency.

*Pillar 5 of structured literacy instruction is syntax or the study of sentence structure. The principles that dictate the sequence and function of words in a sentence. These principles are also referred to as the mechanics, grammar, and variation of a sentence.

References
Culham, R. (2014). The writing thief: using mentor texts to teach the craft of writing. Newark, DE: International Literacy Association
Haynes, C. and Laud, L. (2018). Vocabulary, sentence, and micro-discourse strategies for writing! International Dyslexia Association conference webinar.

Book Reading Activities

COVID-19 temporarily changed how we live our daily lives, in particular how we educate our youth.  Most schools have gone to a “long-distant”, digital format to continue providing instruction and practice for students to continue their formal education.  Students have more time to read and should be making this a top priority.  This is one of the most important educational practices a student can do during this time.  Students should be reading novels or books that have longer story lines.  Students should be reading books closer to their reading ability.  Many educational sites are offering free downloads of novels for students to read.  Most school sites also have books that can be downloaded or read on-line.  Students who are not used to reading written words on electronic devices may struggle at reading and processing the written words.  So, this may make the process of reading and comprehending written words slower than  normal. 

The following options are possible exercises that students can do at home to increase reading achievement.  Most of these options can be used with either non-fiction or fiction books.  These practices usually increase student knowledge and cognition.  The exercise of reading continues to strengthen and develop brain connections that increase student literacy abilities.  These “brain muscles” should have regular exercise.

  • Keep a journal about what they have read each day or time they read.  This journal can include pictures that convey a character or passage of what they have read.
  • Write a summary of each chapter, four to eight sentences. Writing a paragraph that has a topic sentence followed by detail sentences or sentences that describe the details of the chapter, and a conclusion sentence about the chapter.
  • Write a summary of the book. This summary should include details about the beginning, middle, and end.  The amount of details that should be included in the summary will be different at each stage of the maturation process.  Students can also include details about the major characters and pictures about the different settings and characters, etc.
  • Draw a picture of your favorite character(s). Students should include four or five colors to express the character.  The process is especially helpful for younger students.  I have taught many older students who also enjoy this process. Older students should be held accountable for writing about the picture.  I often have students write a paragraph. 
  • Described the main character(s). Students might describe what they look like, what the character(s)enjoy, what they don’t like, and how the character(s) spend their time.
  • Described the setting of the story. Students might describe one setting or several settings of a novel.  Students might include pictures and written words to describe the setting of the story.  Some of the information displayed by the students may be inferred information.  This means that each written description or picture may be different, as we all have different backgrounds of knowledge. 
  • Draw a picture of the setting or favorite scene in the book.
  • Describe the problem or climax of the book. This is something that not every student can grasp, some may need discussion to fully comprehend or pinpoint the problem or climax of the book.
  • Face-time (or contact through an electronic device) a relative, classmate, or friend to describe the plot of the story, character, chapter, etc.
  • Buddy read; this can be accomplished in different formats. Younger students can read aloud to higher level siblings, older students can read aloud to younger students.  Students can read the same book, using an electronic device or a phone.
  • Read to a pet. Most students love to read to a pet.
  • Read aloud to self. This engages the hearing and well as the visual senses to process the written words.  This is especially helpful to early or struggling readers.
  • Discuss what your reading with a classmate, parent, friend, or relative. This may need to take place using an electronic device.  
  • Read with a parent. The student and parent take turns reading.  They might read either every other line of a story, read every other paragraph of the story, or read every other page of the story.  The format is usually dependent on student ability.  I prefer reading every other paragraph.
  • Develop a 3-D model of your favorite setting or part of the book.  The 3-D model can be made of play-dough, clay, wood, tin foil, beans, paper, or anything that you may have on hand.   

 

Enjoy this time to read and explore, travel through books!  

 

 

 

Increasing Student Wealth, Lexicon of Knowledge

Developing student lexicon* to increase comprehension of spoken and written language happens naturally and purposively. The environment that an individual lives in naturally develops their lexicon. For example if you live on a farm, you obsorb the knowledge/language of farm culture. The degree of farm language that you learn depends on the components of the farm that you are exposed to, and your degree of participation in the those components. The learned and stored information about farm life may be relevant in other cultures or life-styles. For example you may learn about record keeping that is applicable in every business. Or you may learn about the components of healthy food consumption that applicable to human development in any culture.

Where I was raised it was natural for most individuals to learn about fresh water fish, it was part of the community culture. It was natural to learn about the salmon run, where in a community near the ocean it may be more natural to learn about sea turtles or tide pools. The habitats, life-cycle, and behaviors of different types of fish have many similarities. Within a purposeful learning environment the study of fish usually gives the opportunity to introduce different cultures, geographical areas, bodies of water, etc. of where the fish reside. The similarities and differences help students to increase their lexicon to comprehend both seen and unseen language related to fish and their habitat. The new learned information about fish is then available to make new conclusions.

In the book How Lincoln Learned to Read,Wolff describes how 12 individuals were educated through their the culture or life-style. This is a non-fiction book that discusses individuals that made notable contributions to America. Some of individuals had great disabilities, some had wealth, and some were very poor. The book includes people and events that influenced their learning. Reading How Lincoln Learned to Read helps the reader to paint a picture of how individuals are educated inside and outside of the classroom and how a person gathers information to understand written and spoken language. The book also helps the reader to understand how early childhood education can influence adult choices.

One chapter of the book describes the education of Belle born to slaves. She was educated by her parents to function effectively within the institution of slavery. This was not the slavery of the plantation South, but of the Northern Dutch who had smaller farms. She had to learn that she was commodity and that staying with her parents could end at a very young age. The chapter also describes how her life evolved into a free woman and how she used prior knowledge to move her forward. Another chapter of the book describes how a girl named, Rachel was raised in hills without the conveniences of modern day technology. The chapter goes on to describe how she lost her father at age 11, forcing the family to move closer to her mother’s family. Where she was able gain a formal education through a private school. The chapter goes on to describe how she used the knowledge that she gained as a child her writing. Some of her writings about nature, the hills, set the stage for present science education. The book also describes individuals such as Abraham Lincoln, Henry Ford, and Benjamin Franklin.

*Students store spoken and written words in their lexicon or mental dictionary. Students increase their mental dictionary through their environment. Student lexicon is always adding new words, pictures, gestures, etc that may help them to better comprehend language. This development begins at birth. Their brain begins attaching meaning(s) to individual tones of sound. Students adjust their stored information as they are introduced to new sounds and their meaning(s). Students also adjust their stored information as new meaning(s) or connections are introduced to the stored information. For example, if you know that dogs shakes when it gets wet, but do not know that dogs may smell when they get wet. Then you experience the a bad odor of a wet dog. Your mental dictionary will adjust your stored information to be dogs shake and may smell when they get wet. The stored information may look similar to a spider web as the information is added and adjusted. Students transfer the stored meaning(s) of tones (voice) to symbols (print) as they learn how to read and write. Student lexicon also helps students to infer or conclude the unwritten or unspoken meaning of a conversation or writing.

Reference
Wolff, Daniel (2009). How Linclon Learned to Read. New York: Bloomsbury USA.

Why are we losing ground in the reading acquisition?

The 2019 National Assessment of Educational (NAEP) reading results show that the national reading scores fell 2% percent in Grade 4 and 4% in Grade 8. This does not sound like much until you put the number of students that one percentage point represents, approximately 1,500 students. One state, Mississippi, continued its positive climb. While 17 states scored 3%-4% points lower than the previous year. And the remaining states remained unchanged from the previous year. This means that the number of students reading at Basic or Below Basic grew from 63% to 65%. It is important to note that this is a sample of students from each state.

So, what is going on? What has created the backward descend in reading acquisition? One plausible reason maybe the time that students are spending in front of an electronic device. Students often spend one to three hours using a digital device at school and then another two to four hours looking at an electronic device at home. During this time students may be reading short messages or posts often written in uncomplete sentences. Students may be spending time scanning headlines or a few sentences of an article. Students might be interacting with the latest electronic game that may offer some occasions to read, usually incomplete sentences. In addition, I am observing that more and more teachers are using mostly “on-line” curriculum or lessons that require students to spend large amounts of time in front of the computer. This may be hindering student reading ability, as time spent in front of an electronic screen may limit student ability to develop deep-reading processes (Wolf, 2018). Deep-reading requires students to read the words at a slower rate, so that the words can move through the circuits of brain to pick up prior knowledge or come alive with meaning. Deep-reading is an interactive activity that uses more energy. Skimming or light reading requires less energy. In addition, current research is suggesting that students struggle with comprehending information in an on-line format (Cavalli, et al., 2019; Kanniainen, Kiili, Tolvanen, Aro, & Leppänen, 2019).

Furthermore, technology/computers change the way students process written language. The brain is an organ that will adapt to function within its environment. If the environment is rich with positive conversations and interactions of individuals of higher cognition then an individual’s brain will build circuits to function in that environment. Research suggests that students who have interactions with individuals of higher cognition usually learn, retain, and reuse information at a higher rate (Vygotsky, 1929). If the environment is rich with limited interactions of individuals and or limited exposure to conversations of higher cognition then the brain will build circuits to function in that environment. The brain needs regular mental and physical exercise of cognition as it matures to develop and maintain connections necessary to deeply process and comprehend verbal and written words (Healy, 1990; Wolf, 2018).


References
Healy, J. M. (1990). Endangered Minds. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbooks.
Wolf, Maryanne (2018). Reader, come home. The reading brain in a digital world. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
Vygotsky, L. (1929). The problem of the cultural development of a child II. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 36, 415-434. Vygotsky Reader, Blackwell. Retrieved from htts://www.marxists.org/archive/Vygotsky/works/1929
/cultural_development.htm.

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