Category: Foundations of Reading

Dyslexia, Reading, and Brain Processing

In the late 1800s James Hinshelwood, an eye surgeon, began seeing more patients arrive at his clinic needing assistance with the inability to learn how to read written words. These individuals were usually sent first to an eye specialist to assess their eye sight capabilities. He began to compare his notes with other physicians who had similar cases. The cases revealed patterns for the inability to read. These individuals had normal eye sight and oral language skills. Some individuals had learned how to read, but lost the ability due to an illness or injury. These cases gave knowledge about the parts of the brain necessary to read written words and what part of the brain may be impinging an individual’s ability to learn how to read. Some cases gave knowledge of the parts of the brain that may be affecting an individual’s ability to learn how to read. The second category that the cases revealed was students who were struggling to learn how to read for the first time. These students had no prior history of brain injuries and had normal eye sight and oral language skills. Hinshelwood theorized that some individuals have visual memory deficits, while others have auditory deficits. He also theorized that individuals with a visual memory deficit and no prior history of brain injury gained their inability to learn how to read through genetics. He called this congenital word-blindness (Hinshelwood, 1912). Current research has confirmed and expanded his theory that the visual memory or occipital lobe does not initial develop to support individuals who are learning how to read.

Researchers have identified three regions of the brain necessary to read written words effectively (Pugh et al. 2000; Shaywitz, 2003; Eden, 2004; Dehaene, 2009; Hoeft 2013; Gaab 2020). The first region is the anterior-interior gyrus or auditory component. The second region is the temporoparietal or processing component. The third region is the occipitotemporal or visual component. I discussed these regions of the brain in greater detail during my August 2018 blog, titled “Understanding How the Brain Processes Words.”

The prior components or working mechanisms of the brain must develop individually before developing coordinating connections between the necessary regions of the brain to read effectively. It normally takes the first five years of life to develop each component of the reading brain separately before the connections begin to develop for reading words (Gotlieb, Rhinehart, & Wolf, 2022). In my last blog, I discussed how students with dyslexia are initially wired and how the right side of the brain compensates until new highways and byways develop to connect the essential components in the left side of the brain. Hinshelwood (1912) discovered that individuals with word-blindness suffered from a deficit in visual memory and usually had good auditory processing/memory abilities. Individuals with word-blindness or dyslexia are developing the initial visual memory component, while simultaneously building the connections to different locations in the brain to read effectively.

Through working with patients of different ages who were learning how to read and by reviewing other cases with similar issues, Hinshelwood (1912) learned that individuals who were struggling to learn how to read needed a different formula of instruction than the current widely used formula of teaching students how to read. At the time students were being taught how to read using the “look and say” or whole word method of learning how to read.

“In the “say and look” method the child is taught to recognize printed words as a whole, not to recognize the words by spelling them out letter by letter, and hence it is claimed that the child learns to read more rapidly, as the process of reading by visual recognition alone dispenses with necessity of the child learning to spell before learning to read, as in the old method” (Hinshelwood, pg. 1034-35).

He learned that these individuals need to be taught by learning how to spell or encoding words, which entails first learning the names of letters or phonics instruction (Hinshelwood, 1912).

He also learned that exhaustion was often present with these students when they were learning how to read. In one case “She could not study at first for more than ten minutes at a time, as exhaustion soon came on and she had to stop” (Hinshelwood, 1912, pg. 1033). In another case “It took so much out of him, as he expressed it, and required such intense mental effort, and he was making such little progress that he felt constrained to abandon any further attempts towards learning to read” (pg. 1033). We know today that much of the exhaustion is from rewiring or growing new connections in their brain to accommodate the lack of initial or genetically developed structure to learn how to read. The exhaustion is often seen as frustration, laziness, or lack of wanting to learn how to read. The brain is trying to catch-up by building the initial foundations, while learning new information that the brain does not have the proper foundation for. The exhaustion usually diminishes over time, as individuals become better readers.

Hinshelwood in the early 1900s presented the theory that the earlier individuals begin to receive intervention in learning how to read the more quickly they will be able participate socially and academically with their peers. There is now research to support the type of assessment and instruction for students that show signs of dyslexia before they arrive in kindergarten.

Children born of families with a history of dyslexia are 50% more likely to struggle in learning how to read. The severity of dyslexia usually varies.

References

Dehaene, S. (2009). Reading in the Brain. Penguin Group.

Eden GF, Jones KM, Cappell K, Gareau L, Wood FB, Zeffiro TA, Dietz NA, Agnew JA, Flowers DL. Neural changes following remediation in adult developmental dyslexia. Neuron. 2004 Oct 28;44(3):411-22. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2004.10.019. PMID: 15504323.

Pugh KR, Mencl WE, Shaywitz BA, Shaywitz SE, Fulbright RK, Constable RT, Skudlarski P, Marchione KE, Jenner AR, Fletcher JM, Liberman AM, Shankweiler DP, Katz L, Lacadie C, Gore JC. The angular gyrus in developmental dyslexia: task-specific differences in functional connectivity within posterior cortex. Psychol Sci. 2000 Jan;11(1):51-6. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00214. PMID: 11228843.

Eden, G., Hoeft, F., Moats, L., & Pugh, K. (2013 & 2014). International Dyslexia Association Conference.

Gaab, N. (2020). Moving from reactive to a proactive model in education framework of Reading development can inform educational practice and policy. International Dyslexia Association Conference.

Gotlieb, R., Rhinehart, L., & Wolf, M. (2022). The “reading brain” is taught, not born: evidence from the evolving neuroscience of reading for teachers and society. The Reading League Journal, 11-16. https://www.thereadingleague.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/The-Reading-Brain.pdf

Healy, J. (2010). Different Learners. New York: Simon & Schuster

Hinshelwood, J. (1911). Two cases of hereditary congenital word-blindness. The British Medical Journal, 608.

Hinshelwood, J. (1912). The treatment of word-blindness, acquired and congenital. The British Medical Journal, 1033.

Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia. Alfred A. Knoft.

Turesky, T., Escalante, E., Loh, M., & Gaab, N. (2025). Longitudinal trajectories of brain development from infancy to school age and their relationship with literacy development. PNAS, 122(24), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2414598122

New Brain Research Supports Early Intervention

“Our findings suggest that some of these kids walk into their first day of kindergarten with their little backpacks and a less-optimal brain for learning to read, and that these differences in brain development start showing up in toddlerhood” (Mineo, 2026). Brain development begins at conception according to its genetic code, which is influenced by its environment. Each set of genetic coding is unique, except for identical births. Some individuals have the genetic coding to develop brain pathways that are different than most individuals, like dyslexia. This makes learning how to effectively process symbols/letters, words, and their meanings more challenging. Environmental factors will influence the severity of dyslexia and learning how to read.

“The brain bases for reading-related skills are being built in infancy, long before children learn to read” (Mineo, 2025). Researchers have identified three regions in the brain that work together to process written symbols. The first region is the anterior. This region located in the front left side of the brain and is responsible for processing phonological information. The second region of the brain that helps to effectively process printed information is the temporoparietal region. This region is in the mid-left side of the brain and processes orthographical information into patterns of speech and meaning. The third region that helps to effectively process written information into sound and meaning is the occipitotemporal region, located in the back, lower left-side of the brain. This region stores a picture of each word along with its sound and meaning. These regions work as a team to read written words. https://www.zaner-bloser.com/research/building-the-reading-brain

Students with developmental dyslexia do not develop the infrastructure within their brain to initial process written letters or symbols. Their brain processes written information through different routes than most  individuals. They use the anterior region in the left side of the brain and parts of the right brain to process written words. The connections between the temporoparietal region and the occipitotemporal region are not yet developed. Students with dyslexia compensate by using parts of their right brain, until the necessary connections of the left-hand side of the brain are developed. Their brain works twice as hard to process the information. This is why many students with dyslexia do not show outwards signs of a disability until they start trying to make sense of or use written words. These students usually become tired, frustrated, and check-out. This often leads to the “lazy” look. These individuals usually need direct, explicit instruction to help develop the necessary connections in the left side of the brain.

There are also many environmental factors that may have an influence on the developing brain. One factor is the community of people in the developing brain’s immediate environment and what their habits may entail-nurturing, chemicals. Another factor is technology, the amount of use or interaction with different types of technology will affect the developing brain, such as a pencil or mechanical or electronic devices. The amount of television and programs viewed will affect the developing brain. Another factor is the amount and types of conversations the developing brain hears. Another factor is the amount of print the developing brain is exposed to. Another factor is the amount of interaction the developing brain is given through different senses-sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell.  The environmental factors that the developing brain is exposed to helps to develop the layers of information or knowledge that individual’s use when learning to read and reading information in print. If the process is slowed, stopped, or altered by environmental factors, the results will be altered. Often when students struggle in learning how to read, we do not know all the factors involved that have developed the student disability.

Many of the initial layers of knowledge necessary to read written words are not seen or heard while growing, like the first initial growth of a plant. A plant seed uses its “genetic” coding to begin growing. Like a human seed, the plant seed needs the right environment to begin growth. A plant first grows roots. Then a stem begins to grow. Then leaves begin growing. This growth all takes place usually unseen, underground. The plant has been developing the connections necessary to survive out of the soil. Once the plant has poked out of the soil it will continue to grow according to its genetic design, affected by environmental factors. Like the unseen plant growth, the human brain develops in layers. Many layers are unseen, like before individuals begin to talk. The brain or person observes and listens for quite some time (about a year) before spoken utterances begin. The fruit of their observation is realized gradually overtime. The number of spoken words grows overtime, along with the complexity of verbal sentence structure.

Current research suggests that the brain begins categorizing and storing new information at conception. The foundational layers necessary for future affluent reading becomes more prevalent around age 18 months. The complexity of the brain is developed enough to determine who will struggle with phonological processing. At this stage of development researchers were able to determine “individual differences in early brain structure associated with phonological processing and mediate decoding and word reading ability in early school” (Mineo, 2025). The lack of phonological processing skills is a major indication of dyslexia or deficiency in learning how to read written language.

These new findings support prior researchers’ conclusions. Fowler (1983) theorized that a person’s environment has influence on their genetic code and that individuals develop in a layered manner. Piaget (1966) theorized that as a child’s body maturates, the more complex their brain can process information. Vygotsky (1934) theorized individuals first process information orally, until the age of 7 when they begin processing (thinking) information both internally and externally. He also theorized that individuals layer their knowledge through the help of their community environment. Meaning students usually cannot complete an activity before the foundation for that activity is developed without the assistance of another individual who has the prior knowledge or foundational skills of task. Binet and Simon (1906) theorized that children will be able to complete certain tasks at a particular age, but usually not before. For instance, Binet and Simon (1916) discovered that a picture could determine a children’s intellectual age at three, seven, and twelve. Three-year-old children give simple explanations of the people within a picture, but not the background or happenings of the people within the picture. Children at the intellectual age of seven can examine a picture and describe the relationship of the people and objects within the picture. At the intellectual age of twelve, children can give an interpretation of the picture. The interpretation is expressed in written form about their feelings in relation to a description of the picture.

Intervention usually assists in the development of connections (by-ways and high-ways) within the brain. This usually leads to effective reading skills when practiced and practiced and practiced. These students will need extra time to grow and practice each newly acquire skill with in the complex system of affluent reading.

References

Binet, A. & Simon, T. (1915). A method of measuring the development of the intelligence of  your children. Chicago Medical Books.

Binet, A. & Simon, T. (1916). The development of intelligence in children. Williams & Wilkins Co.

Fowler, W. (1962). Cognitive learning in infancy and early childhood. Psychological Bulletin, 59(2). 116-152.

Fowler, W. (1983) Potentials of childhood, Vol 1. Heath & Co.

Healy, J. (2010). Different Learners. New York: Simon & Schuster

International Dyslexia Association Conference (2013-2014) Eden, G., Hoeft, F., Moats, L., & Pugh, K.

Mineo, L. (2025). Reading skills—and struggles—manifest earlier than thought. New finding underscores need to intervene before kids start school, say researchers. The Harvard

Gazette. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2025/06/reading-skills-and-struggles-manifest-earlier-than-thought/

Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (2000). The psychology of the child. Basic Books.

Turesky, T., Escalante, E., Loh, M., & Gaab, N. (2025). Longitudinal trajectories of brain development from infancy to school age and their relationship with literacy development. PNAS, 122(24), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2414598122

Vygotsky, L. (1934). Thought and language. MIT Press.

Zaner-Bloser. (2025). https://www.zaner-bloser.com/research/building-the-reading-brain

 

 

 

Tools for Reading Multisyllabic Words

Decoding multisyllabic words is similar to decoding CVC words. Students us their knowledge of grapheme-phoneme units to decode and fluently read CVC words. Students use their knowledge of grapheme-phoneme correspondence, morphemes*, and syllables to decode multisyllabic words for pronunciation, spelling, and meaning.

Teaching both syllables and morphemes should begin when students have the knowledge of letter-sound correspondences. Students begin analyzing words at birth through the oral language of those in their environment. They analyze words for their sounds and meanings. These are necessary survival skills to communicate their needs. Babies usually change the tone of their cries to match their need at the time. This is the beginning of effective communication that evolves into more precise tones of individual letters and words, as children get older. This knowledge is later transferred to written letters and words. Most students begin noticing and using letters/words in the years leading up to their formal years of education. The amount of written language exposure before they arrive in a formal classroom often dictates the amount of letter and word knowledge a student will have upon entering Kindergarten.

Students who are reading CVC words are analyzing and taking mental notes of how designated sounds of individual and groups of letters are blended to form different sounds. Students rely on these mental notes to assist them as words become increasingly more complex in how the letters are joined together to create words of meaning.

Most students need formal instruction of how to analyze words into a variety of different manageable word parts. Students are taught letter-sound correspondences that are used to decode CVC words by grapheme-phoneme units. Students are taught morphemes that can be used to separate words into chunks or units of meaning for pronunciation, spelling, and meaning.

There are six types of syllables that are taught to assist students in chunking words into smaller parts to help them decode the pronunciation. The English language has six major types of syllables described in the chart below.

Type of syllable CVC Final e Open Vowel Diagraph r-controlled Constant – le
Example cat

log

bit

set

cut

 kite

bone

bake

cute

 

 me

sky

be/gan

mu/sic

 oi – foil

ee – keep

ea – beat

oa boat

oo – zoom

 ar – car

ir – girl

er – her

ur – fur

or fork

 marble

puddle

bugle

maple

little

Syllables types are usually taught beginning with closed syllables and then moving onto Final e syllables or to the right on the chart. There are steps that usually ease the process of finding syllables in multisyllabic words. The first step is to underline all the vowels in a word. Each syllable has one vowel or vowel digraph. If you count the underlined vowels this will tell you how many syllables are in that word. The second step is to look for affixes. These are natural syllable breaks. Step one and two can be reversed. The third step is looking for double constants that can be separated, such as pp or cn. This is when finding syllables can become harder. Words like jester or jostling both have the double constant “st.” The word jester cannot be separated between the -s- and -t-, yet the word jostling can be separated between the -s- and -t-. Jester has the suffix -er, which makes the word splitable between the -te-. The word jostling has two different suffixes -le and -ing. The syllable/suffix -le takes the -t- to make the syllable -tle. Then the suffix -ing is added that requires dropping the -e- before adding the -ing. This makes the syllable split between the -st-. Once there is just one vowel or vowel team in each syllable, it is time to read the word. Students should read one syllable at a time, such as /off/, /set/, /ting/; then blend the syllables together – /offsetting/.

Orally, students can be taught to clap out a word into syllables, once the word is pronounced for them. Another way to find syllables orally is to place your hand under your chin and then pronounce the word aloud. Each time your chin dips is a syllable. Syllable knowledge increases the accuracy of language pronunciation and comprehension. Syllable knowledge also increases student decoding and encoding skills.

Morphemes are usually taught one at a time, such as -ing or -est. The meaning is discussed along with its origin of language, like Latin or German. Writing words and developing sentences that include the morpheme will increase the relevancy to the student. The study of morphemes usually increases student comprehension, vocabulary, and spelling and usage of different words.

*Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning. Base words are called free morphemes. Affixes might be an inflectional, derivational, or a bound morpheme.

 

 

 

Reading Fluency: Part 3 Prosody—Expression

In the previous blogs, I have discussed the rate and accuracy of reading fluency. In this blog I will discuss the third part of reading fluency – prosody. Prosody is the personality of written words. It gives the listener the ability to better comprehend what the writer is trying convey. Prosody, although just one part of reading fluency, is complex. Prosody includes the differences of pitch, duration, stress, and pausing of the reader (Karageoros, Wallot, Müller, Schindler, & Richter, 2023). Proper comprehension depends on those intricate pieces of prosody synchronizing. Research has concluded that prosody usually predicts student reading comprehension abilities (Paige, 2020).

When reading written words, a person instantaneously processes them for pronunciation and meaning. They use multiple skills and sections of the brain, such as orthographic mapping, personal lexicon, syntax and decoding skills. Some of these skills are learned naturally through the environment or the modeling of individuals. Some may also need instruction in how to transfer the expression of oral language to written words. Most prosody skills need to be explicitly and systematically taught.

Types of Instruction that Help Students to Learn Prosody Skills

1. Instruction of foundational reading skills. These skills should be explicitly and systematically taught.
a. The first foundational skill is phonological awareness – the ability to process and manipulate letter sounds, rhyming words, and segmenting of sounds within words.
b. The second foundational skill is phoneme-grapheme correspondences. This gives students the opportunity to learn the visual representation of oral sound.
c. The third and fourth foundational skills are syllables and morphemes. These skills give students the power to chunk words in to parts instead of individual letters. This also gives students the power to link meaning to those chunks.
d. The fifth foundational skill is syntax, which is the study of sentences structure – punctuation, sequence, and function of words within a sentence.
e. The sixth foundational skill is semantics. The study of how parts of words, words, and groups of words create meaning to written passages.

2. Practice, Practice, Practice! Choral, echo and whisper reading are ways to practice oral reading. Students might also read to an animal, person, tree, etc.

3. General conversation – allowing students the opportunity to visit or collaborate about common subjects or projects.

4. Reader’s Theatre – Students practice reading and giving expression to written words. Students usually practice their lines over and over to make sure that they accurately bring the person they are emulating to life. This allows the student to practice the pitch, duration, stress, and pausing of the different words.

5. Teacher modeling of prosody, such as reading a story, passage, or phrase aloud with and to students. Teachers model how readers might bring written words to life, as they read aloud. This strengthens the comprehension of the listener. Most students “soak in” teacher verbiage and often mimic their prosody.

6. Partner reading – when two students take turns reading to each other at their learning level. Partner reading has many benefits, one being the ability to model and observe different ways written language might be brought to life.

7. Purposeful, direct instruction in relation to prosody. This might include a lesson on punctuation – how punctuation of a sentence will change the inflections of words. This might also include poetic reading.

References
Hasbrouck, Jan (2024). Fluency principles for practice. 2024 IDA Conference.

Karageoros, P., Wallot, S., Müller, B. Schindler, J., & Richter, T. (2023). Distinguishing between struggling and skilled readers based on their prosodic speech patterns in oral reading: an exploratory study in grades 2 and 4. Acta Psychologica, 235(May 2023), 1-11.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103892.

Paige, D. D. (2020). Reading Fluency: A Brief history, the Importance of Supporting Processes, and the Role of Assessment. ERIC: ED607625.

Wilson, B. (2011). Instruction for older students with a word-level reading disability. In Birsh. J.R. (Ed.), Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills (3rd Edition, pp. 487-516). Brookes, Pub Co.

Appropriate Reading Rate

What is the appropriate rate when reading a passage? The short answer is that an appropriate rate for reading is the rate in which a person might speak when having a conversation. This may be slightly different for each individual based on their processing abilities. Many mechanisms or tools must work together for an individual to read at a conversation rate. Research suggests what the “normal” rate of reading should be for students at each grade. For example, in August/September a Grade 2 student who reads 111 words per minute is in the 90 percentile for reading rate (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2017). A Grade 2 student who accurately reads 84 words per minute during the Fall screening is at the 75 percentile of reading rate. Reading words too fast or too slow compromises the comprehension of the words read (White, 2024; Hasbrouck, 2024). Students who are reading too fast do not allow their brain to fully process the meaning of the word, sentences, or passage. Students who are reading too slow are usually focusing more on how to accurately pronounce the words. When a student reads words at a good rate, they are more able to think deeper about the passages that they read. This increases their comprehension ability, as students usually synthesis while they read to make smarter conclusions and choices.

The rate of reading involves several mechanisms working together to provide the intended outcome. Why do we read? We usually read to communicate and learn, which involves understanding the words read. The mechanisms are located in different parts of the brain to process written language. One mechanism is phoneme awareness, which is the ability to recognize and manipulate sounds of a spoken word. A second is phonics knowledge. This is the rules of phonemes and graphemes that give students the power to decode words. A third tool is orthographic awareness. The rules of how letters are ordered to create written words of meaning. A fourth mechanism is morphological knowledge. The smaller parts of words that form the meaning of words. A fifth tool is semantics. The meaning of a word, sentence or passage read. A sixth mechanism is syntax. The rules of how a sentence should be formed – grammar. When one of the above mechanisms is lacking age-appropriate ability (under developed) the rate of reading will be affected. An under developed tool usually means intervention instruction to increase student ability. Students begin to automatically divide and conquer multisyllabic words based on their knowledge of phonemes, graphemes, syllables, and morphemes. Student deficits will be different based on their educational and environmental experiences, and their genetic make-up.

There are a couple more tools that have important roles in student reading rate. Student retrieval rate (cognitive processing ability) of known words from long-term memory. This may be affected by multiple factors, such as how information is categorized in the brain. This will be unique for each student based on their genetics and environmental experiences. Another tool that may cause havoc on student reading rate is their working memory (short-term). The amount of information that each student is able to hold in their working memory.

Reading fluency involves student ability to read the words at the rate and prosody of conversation without error. These are not naturally acquired skills. These are learned skills that require the brain to create connections between different brain tools.

Orthographic mapping is “the process of storing a word permanently in memory for instant retrieval” (Reading Rockets, 2024).

References
Hasbrouck, J. (2024). International Dyslexia Association Annual Conference, Dallas, TX. Reading Fluency: Principles for Practice. Session GS02-24.
Hasbrouck & Tindal (2017). Hasbrouck & Tindal Oral Reading Fluency data 2017. Read Naturally, www.readnaturally.com
Ray, J. S. (2017). Tier 2 intervention for students in grades 1-3 identified as at-risk in reading. (Doctoral dissertation Walden University). https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/3826/
Reading Rockets (2024). Basics: sight words and orthographic mapping.
https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/sight-words-and-orthographic-mapping
White, N. C. (2024). International Dyslexia Association Annual Conference, Dallas, TX. Reading Fluency. Session IPP59-24.

 

What is Reading Fluency?

Reading fluency requires many different components working together to produce accurate reading fluency. Reading fluency is defined as “reading skills that involve the ability to read text aloud with accuracy, appropriate rate, and good expression” (Ray, 2017). The skills necessary and the degree of dependency on those components for reading a written passage change over time. Students will rely more on letter-sound correspondences to decode words when they are beginning to learn how to read and more on orthographic mapping as their reading abilities increase. Students will also depend more on their oral language or phonemic awareness abilities when they are first learning how to read. All students begin to read at the same point, no matter the age. In this blog I will focus on the accuracy part of reading fluency. In the future blogs, I will discuss the rate and good expression of reading fluency.

Reading fluency is dependent on how accurate the passage is read. This is the ability to read aloud written words or symbols on a page with little or no mistakes. Reading accuracy develops in layers, beginning with the foundation – oral language ability. This is developed through student environment, with their immediate or home environment having the largest impact on their oral language development. This means that students begin learning how to read through the individuals that they spend the most time interacting with. These individuals assist in their development of phonological awareness skills; the ability to recognize and manipulate sound parts of words, like phonemes and on-set rimes. Student phonological awareness skills before learning how to read written words usually dictates their rate of acquiring reading skills.

Another vital skill in the development of reading accuracy is knowing each individual phoneme and how it is represented by grapheme(es), which is letter – sound correspondences. This skill is essential for initially learning how to read. This skill gives students the power to decode written words. Student will combine this skill with their phonemic awareness skills, such as rhyming to decode words. Some students will learn this with little instruction. The majority of students need explicit, direct instruction accompanied with lots and lots and lots of practice. And still, some will need direct one-on-one instruction that includes oral, visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile components. Students will continue to rely on their knowledge of graphemes and their corresponding phonemes through-out their lifetime.

Another skill that is necessary for reading accurately is the ability to break down multisyllabic words into more manageable parts, sometimes called chunking. Students begin to automatically divide and conquer multisyllabic words based on their knowledge of phonemes, graphemes, syllables, and morphemes. This skill becomes more relevant after students learn how to accurately decode CVC, CVCe, CCVC and CCVCe words. Students use their knowledge of syllable types and morphemes to breakdown a multisyllabic word. The different syllable types have recognizable patterns that help the reader to decode words. Over time the student brain develops a “catalog” of rules and patterns about letters and groups of letters (orthographic knowledge) to increase the speed in which a person conquers new or previously introduced words that still need practice. Students use their orthographic mapping skills to permanently store a word for instant retrieval. Over time students will naturally depend less on the individual phonemes to decode words and rely more on their orthographic knowledge and mapping abilities.

Why worry about reading accuracy? Student usage of the words read in a passage is compromised when students are unable to accurately read at least 95% of the words. The inaccuracy usually causes a cognitive overload, similar to an overload on an energy circuit. The connection is disabled.

Learning how to read is not a naturally phenomenon. Each person has to learn, develop new skills in order to read written words. These skills are usually taught in a systematic format beginning with oral language knowledge and skills.

In my next blog I will discuss the appropriate rate necessary for reading fluency.

References
Apel K. What is orthographic knowledge? Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch. 2011 Oct;42(4):592-603. doi: 10.1044/0161-1461(2011/10-0085). Epub 2011 Aug 15. PMID: 21844399.
Ray, J. S. (2017). Tier 2 intervention for students in grades 1-3 identified as at-risk in reading. (Doctoral dissertation, Walden University). https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/3826/
Reading Rockets (2024). Basics: sight words and orthographic mapping.
https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/sight-words-and-orthographic-mapping

Reading Development, in Relation to Cognitive Maturation Stage Two, Semiotic or Symbolic, 2 – 6

Cognitive development during the semiotic or symbolic stage is dependent on the amount and type of social interaction that takes place during the maturation process (Vygotsky, 1934). Children usually develop in a blurred manner. Each individual will move through the natural layers of maturation at different speeds, dependent on their environment and genetics. All children use a different formula to analyze knowledge and a different way of integrating the knowledge into their brains. All children demonstrate different tempos for processing information. Children will comprehend higher levels of oral language before using higher levels of oral language. The cognition of children will increase as they master social processes. Children begin imitating or playing the roles of other individuals. Children begin to process abstractly. At the end of this stage students should be able to complete more multi-layered tasks, like a simple two-step task or first take out the trash, then bring the trash can back in, and put a new liner in the trash can.

Symbolic play helps children work through their unsolved conflicts and self-identity. Children usually possess the desire for symbolic play within their genetic design. Piaget and Inhelder (1966) argued that there are four different types of symbolic play. The first type is exercise play, which involves repeating previous activities that children enjoyed learning. The second kind of symbolic play is actually called symbolic play. Children mimic other characters or individuals. They enjoy dress-up or make-believe. They often play out unresolved situations. The third form of symbolic play is playing games with rules, which children learn by playing with other individuals. Learning and playing games increases their social connections. This type of symbolic play typically begins during the first years of formalized schooling. The fourth type of symbolic play involves solving equations or playing games that involve more abstract thought. Children begin being able to visualize pictures or images not physical seen within their minds. The fourth type of symbolic play signals a transition into the next phase of cognitive development.

Regarding literacy development, learning how to read begins in the womb through genetic wiring. The environment stimulates and effects the genetic wiring. When this stage begins children have been soaking in their environment for about two years, gaining knowledge and assembling the wiring to express comprehendible words. Oral language usually increases as their cognition abilities increase. Children usually include two or more words in a sentence by the end of age two, when children begin developing syntactical rules. Children usually speak what has been modeled in their environment. Piaget and Inhelder (1969) argued that language is acquired through assimilation and “requires both linguistic and psychological competence” (p. 89).

Reading written words begins with oral language knowledge that is transferred to written language. Children at this stage of development are in the pre-alphabetic phase of learning how to read written words. Children are manipulating language sounds to develop coherent sentences. Children are listening and mimicking their environment about how sounds make words and sentences to communicate their needs and wants. Children at this age will also begin using pencil and paper type objects to convey their thoughts through pictures and letters. Children begin transferring images from within their mind to paper in the form of scribbling and drawing. The pictures become clearer as the child moves closer to age six (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). Children at this age usually move from little to greater explanation of their drawing. They will also begin “pretend” reading books. Children begin to learn that the written symbols or letters on a page represent oral sounds. The items related to reading and writing in their immediate environment usually impact the rate of growth.

In a formal learning environment, like pre-school children are usually receiving instruction in phonemic awareness. They are listening to books that are usually increasing their vocabulary and comprehension. Pre-school usually begins to teach grapheme-phoneme correspondences. Children usually begin the writing process through pictures before moving to letters and words. Children learn the correct way to hold a book. Children learning that English is read from left to right.

At this stage of learning how to read, we begin to see major signs cognitive processing issues that tend to clog or place road blocks for students learning how to read. One processing deficit that may become more apparent at this stage of learning how to read written words is phonological dyslexia. These children lack the natural wiring to begin learning how to read. They need certain ingredients to be present to develop the necessary wiring or processing routes to learn how to read. This type of dyslexia is genetically driven. Children with phonological dyslexia typically use the non-lexical route to process grapheme-phoneme correspondences, instead of the lexical route. Another processing deficit is surface dyslexia. Surface dyslexia is more environmental developed. These children typically have a lexical route in place that may increase their ability to learn to read. At this stage of learning how to read, identifying and providing intervention or explicit direct instruction is cost effective, in relation to both later emotional and instructional intervention needs.

References

Binet, A. & Simon, T. (1916). The development of intelligence in children. Williams & Wilkins Co.

Chall, J. S. (1983). Stages of reading development. McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Ehri, L.C. (2022). What teachers need to know and do to teach letter-sounds, phonemic awareness, word reading, and phonics. The Reading Teacher, 0(0),1-9. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2095

Fowler, W. (1983). Potentials of childhood (Vol. I). D.C. Heath & Co.

Healy, J. (1987). Your child’s growing mind. Broadway Books.

Johnson, G. (2010). Internet use and child development: validation of the ecological techno-subsystem. Educational Technology & Society, 13(1), 176-185.

Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. Basic Books.

Vygotsky, L. (1934). Thought and language. MIT Press.

 

Reading Development, in Relation to Cognitive Maturation (Sensori-Motor, Birth – 2)

The development of cognition and cognitive processing begins in the womb according to genetics. Most individuals have a unique genetic design from the mixing and matching of their maternal and fraternal genetics. The exception would be identical twins, who have the same unique genetics. Disabilities linked to genetic dispositions will begin to form at this stage. The child’s environment may alter (increase or decrease) possible impacts of a genetical directed disability. Children gain their intelligence through familial genetics. Their intelligence is usually altered through the environment before and after birth (Binet & Simon, 1916). Genetics also plays a role in child motivation (Fowler, 1983). Infant environment both in and out of the womb will also affect the beginning stages of cognitive growth (Binet & Simon, 1916; Piaget, 1966).

Cognitive development takes place in a layered manner (Binet & Simon, 1916; Vygotsky, 1934; Piaget, 1966; Fowler, 1983). Systematic in nature, building each skill upon the previously learned skill. Children learn how to move their limbs before, rolling over. Children learn how to say sounds before a whole word. Children usually begin to verbalize one-word sentences, before using two or more-word sentences. Students learn how to comprehend oral words and sentences before reading and comprehending written passages. The brain begins to prune the unused cognitive connections or highways and byways at about 12 months (Fowler, 1983). This begins and defines the structure of how an individual’s thoughts will be organized. New connections will develop based on their environmental layers of influence (Johnson, 2010).

Oral language develops naturally from different types of babbles or cries towards comprehendible sentences. Children develop oral language that echoes their immediate environment. For example, if a child hears simple words like pretty or yellow to describe a flower, the child will usually use those same words to describe the flower. If a child hears higher-level words, like elegant or marigold in their immediate environment then the child will follow the modeled use of those words. The child is dependent on the accuracy of the modeled use of the word to learn the meaning and use of the word. Children who hear a word often mispronounced will usually use that pronunciation of the word. Most children learning to speak words will initially mispronounce words, as some letters are naturally harder to learn how to pronounce correctly. If a child’s environment continues to correctly pronounce the word, they will usually make the self-correction.

During the Sensori-Motor stage of cognitive processing development children are developing their foundation for reading written words. Children are developing their oral language skills that are necessary for reading written words. They are learning how to manipulate sounds to form words and sentences to communicate their needs and thoughts. Most environments provide the right climate for individuals to learn how to manipulate sounds to make different words. This is the beginning or foundation of learning how to encode and decode written words. They are developing the highways and byways of oral comprehension. This is when written comprehension begins. They are developing subject categories and connections. This is the prerequisite of learning how to read written words.

The brain is a muscle that needs to be nurtured and exercised on a regular basis, similar to going to the gym and focusing on increasing the strength of a person’s leg or arm muscles. Some individuals need more exercise or practice to accomplish the goal of strengthening their leg muscles. This concept also applies to learning how to speak and comprehend oral words. The time spent exercising or practicing usually determines oral language growth. Genetics begins the process; environment assist in the growth process.

Reading is not a natural phenomenon. Reading is a taught skill that has a few prerequisites that need to be learned and practiced before actually being taught to decipher written symbols or the written form of oral language. One prerequisite is a solid foundation in phonemic awareness skills, which children begin building in the womb.

Definitions

  • Cognition – thinking skills
  • Cognitive processing – how the brain processes information – synergizing stored and gathered information to make conclusions. Individuals use the highways and byways of their brain to process and comprehend their environment.
  • Cognitive development – is how a brain typically maturates/grows over time within its environment.
  • Cognitive flexibility – “Ability to shift attention among competing stimuli and consider alternatives” (Birsh & Carreker, 4th, 2018, p. 818).

 

References

Binet, A. & Simon, T. (1916). The development of intelligence in children.             Williams & Wilkins Co.

Birsh, J. R. & Carreker, S., (Eds.). (2018). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills (4th ed.). P. H. Brookes Pub. Co.

Fowler, W. (1983). Potentials of childhood (Vol. I). D.C. Heath & Co.

Healy, J. (1987). Your child’s growing mind. Broadway Books.

Johnson, G. (2010). Internet use and child development: validation of the ecological techno-subsystem. Educational Technology & Society, 13(1), 176-185.

Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (2000). The psychology of the child. Basic Books.

Vygotsky, L. (1934). Thought and language. MIT Press.

The Benefits of Utilizing Word Ladders to Teach Literacy Skills – Spelling, Vocabulary, Writing, Fluency, Comprehension

Word Ladders were first created in the late 1800’s by Lewis Carroll, as a two-person game. The original game was called Doublets. Players were given the beginning word and the ending word, like head – tail. Each player had five moves to change the first word into the last word. Players were only allowed to change one letter of the previous word to create their next word or move toward the target word.

There are a few differences between the original word ladder game played in the late 1800s and the Word Ladder curriculum developed by Dr. Timothy Rasinski. One difference is that only the beginning word is given. Another difference is that Rasinski ladders usually require more than five moves. Another difference is that solvers of the “puzzle” must use a clue and the previously developed word to discover the next word in the puzzle. Another difference is that Rasinski’s Word Ladder allows for different amounts of letter changes, instead of a set amount. The clue states how many letters need to be added or subtracted to the previous word of the puzzle to form the new word. Another difference is that there may be different amounts of letters within a word in the same puzzle. The puzzle shows solvers how many letters are in the word that they are solving for. Rasinski’s Word Ladders are published as literacy curriculum for students in Grades K-6. Each ladder has a focus or topic.

The benefits of using Word Ladders are many. Word Ladders usually help to increase student knowledge of spelling—encoding of words. Students must think about the letter order of possible words. Students must link graphemes to phonemes and analyze written letter structures within possible words, as they discover the next word. Another benefit is vocabulary. The clues require students to think about different words that are described in the clue. Students must retrieve possible words from their lexicon. Student collaborations about possible words usually help students to retrieve the necessary words. These conversations also help to link other possible words to words of similar meaning. Students also benefit from learning the meaning of words that are unfamiliar to them. The conversations grow, broaden and deepen student lexicon. This growth assists in student comprehension of both oral and written communication. This growth also strengthens student ability to write more complex sentences.

Many students will be frustrated until they understand how to complete the puzzle. Modeling or completing the process of the solving the ladder puzzle together a few times usually creates a student interest of completing the task independently or in collaboration. Matching student ability with the right grade level curriculum will also decrease student helplessness of solving the mystery. I usually use them as a whole class exercise. Students are allowed to collaborate and we usually go over the puzzle, so that every student feels included. When a student asks, I will give clues – leading questions or statements – that might help them to accurately solve the current clue.

Rasinski’s Word Ladders may still be used as a game. Students are usually motivated to solve the clues within each ladder to complete the puzzle. Many students like the competition of seeing who can solve the puzzle first. The puzzles may be a hard challenge for struggling students, when given as a whole class assignment. Allowing student collaboration usually eases the frustration. Some of that will depend how the puzzle(s) are used.

Teachers use Rasinski’s form of the puzzle to strengthen student spelling, written comprehension, vocabulary knowledge, oral language and or motivation to participate in literacy activities. These puzzles might be used in the regular class at grade-level to increase student knowledge of the previously noted. These puzzles might also be used as an intervention for student who are struggling with vocabulary knowledge or the other mentioned benefits.

Why Teach Spelling?

Spelling knowledge is a gateway to higher student achievement in literacy. Individuals begin learning how to spell, as they begin manipulating sounds. Individuals begin to encode words as they begin writing symbols that represent sounds. Individuals are not initially wired to encode words they must be taught how the sounds are represented in print – for any language.

Spelling instruction enables students to become better skilled at decoding and encoding written words, which usually increases student reading fluency. Students also increase their lexicon, building depth and width of knowledge about different subjects. Students also increase their ability to write and use higher level words within their writing. Students also build or strengthen their synthesizing skills and become more self-assured.

Spelling instruction should encompass several different components that are known to increase student retention of how individual words are spelled. These different components assist students in completing “word studies” of how words are encoded. Spelling instruction should increase in complexity as students grow academically—moving in a systematic, sequential manner. Spelling instruction should include the following components:

• Phonology – “the study of spoken sounds (phonemes)—rules of how sounds are encoded, such as why these sounds follow this pattern to form this sound(s). Individuals should have phoneme awareness skills before learning how to read. This is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulated individuals sounds in spoken words. Phoneme awareness is part of phonological awareness. Phonological awareness is the ability to process and manipulate letter sounds, rhyming words, and segmenting of sounds within words. The study of phonology usually increases student ability to spell, pronounce, and comprehend written words” (Ray, 2019).

• Morphology – the study of the smallest units of meaning. Word analysis helps students understand how the smallest units of meaning dictate a word meaning. The word meaning determines spelling pattern. Morphology increases student lexicon and comprehension abilities of both oral and written language.

• Syllabification or syllable knowledge – how words are divided into different chunks or parts. There are six major syllable types in the English language. Understanding how words are divided into syllables usually increases student decoding and encoding skills. Syllable knowledge also increases the accuracy of language pronunciation and comprehension.

  • Orthography – the rules of how letters form written words. The internal structure of a word in print. Encoding words requires knowledge of how the letters and letter patterns of a word dictate its sound and meaning. In some cases, the same sound within words is generated by different letters, for example the long /ā/ sound is generated using these different letters or combination of letters:
  • -eigh (weigh)
  • ai (rain)
  • a – e (cake)
  • a
  • ei (vein)
  • -ay (stay)

Another example is the letter k that uses different single or combination of letters to create the /k/ sound, for example:

  • c (cut)
  • ck (back, chick)
  • k (kick)
  • ke (bake)
  • Orthography Mapping – “the mental process we use to store words for immediate, effortless, retrieval. It requires phoneme proficiency and letter-sound proficiency, as well as the ability to unconsciously or consciously make connections between the oral sound in spoken words and the letters in written words.” (Redding, 2023, slide 6). Instruction in orthography usually leads to faster retrieval of how words are spelled, which typically increases student reading fluency rates. Students memorize the letter layout of words and store them to be retrieved for later use—sight words.
  • Etymology – the study of word origins. English is deprived of many different languages that may have different rules of how letters are ordered within a word to create the same sounds. For example, words of the German or Latin language use different letters to form the same sounds of different origin. Some languages are more transparent than other languages. English is less transparent than other languages.

Students often resist being taught purposeful lessons about how to accurately encode letters into the “right” word. Students usually show less resistance to spelling instruction when it is embedded within other lessons.

Spelling should be taught systematically and explicitly. Students begin learning how to spelling written words through oral language. Students increase their knowledge of how to spell words when they begin bridging their oral language to written letters or combination of letters.

References

Redding, N. (2023). The importance of spelling instruction. Presentation International Dyslexia Conference (IDA).

Ray, J (2019). Structured literacy teacher, instructional knowledge. The Literacy Brain. https://theliteracybrain.com/category/structure-literacy-instruction/page/2/

Rosenberg, D. (2023). The forgotten skills needed for literacy success: spelling and handwriting. Presentation International Dyslexia Conference (IDA), Wilson Language Training.

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