Category: Foundations of Reading

Teaching Sound-Symbol Correspondences

         For me, a joy of teaching is watching a student realize that they have the power (the tools) to analyze and decode words into the correct sounds. This skill can be easy for some students to master, most will need instruction. The type and intensity of instruction will differ for each student. I suggest that all instruction should include practice in naming the letter and its sound(s). This practice should happen each day. Using cards that include picture(s) of an item that begins with the sound of the letter will increase the retention of the sound-symbol correspondences. There are other instructional strategies that can be used in addition to flashcards. Some of these instructional strategies are discussed in the following paragraph.

         The following strategies include three of more of the five senses—hearing, touching, seeing, tasting, and smelling. The first strategy is to match cards of letters with cards that feature pictures of items that begin with the same sound as the letter. There should be pictures that represent all of the sounds that a letter can make, for example G…. /g/ /j/ or E…. /e/ /E/.  Students says the letter and the beginning sound of the featured item when they the matched cards. The second strategy is using a white board and marker. Students write the letter, then say the sound. Or the teacher says the sound the student writes the letter. The third strategy is using sand. Colored maybe a better choice as this usually gives a better contrast and students tend to like color. Pour just enough sand to give about a fourth of an inch layer on a plate, on a table or on deep cookie sheet type container. Students write a letter in the sand and say the sound(s) of the letter. Or the teacher says the sound of the letter the student writes the letter. The fourth strategy is using pudding. This can be used in the same manner as the sand. This is a different texture. The fifth strategy is using play dough. Students use the play dough to form a letter(s). Students point to the formed letter and say its sound(s). The teacher can ask students to form letters by uttering its corresponding sound. Students can use pictures of the letter to help them form the letter. The sixth strategy is using music. Using video that includes sound that students can sing-a-long with or mimic increases the number of senses that students use. Using video that includes motions, along with music and pictures can increase the retention of letter and sound correspondences. The last strategy that I will included in this blog is using a grate (usually plastic). The grate is usually about the size of a piece of paper. The texture should be defined enough that when you place a piece of paper over it you can run a crayon over it to create a picture of the grate. The grate can be used in a few ways. Students trace the letter with their index finger, while saying its sound. Students place a piece of paper on the grate and write a letter using a crayon. Students then say the letters’ corresponding sound(s).

              Sound-symbol correspondences or the relationship(s) between phoneme(s) and grapheme(s) are Pillar 2 of Structure Literacy Instruction. This may be referred to as phonics instruction that teaches predictable or the constant rules of sound-symbol correspondences to produce written language. At this stage students learn one-on-one correspondence, for example the written letter B represents this phoneme or sound. It is important to note that some letters are represented by more than one sound, depending on the origin and spelling of the word. Students begin decoding and encoding words as they begin to learn the sound-symbol correspondences. Student knowledge of the phoneme(s) and grapheme(s) relationships usually increases student ability to read, comprehend, and spell written language.

Literacy Instruction

The English language is more opaque than transparent. This makes learning how to read and write the spoken language seem more like taking a walk down a twisty, hard to navigate path that features many unmarked opportunities to walk in other directions. To better navigate the difficult path of learning how to read and write, scholars like Noah Webster simplified and organized literacy instruction. When America was separating from Britain and developing their own education system.

Webster (1790) saw that the strength of the United States was dependent on the education of its youth. He believed that language arts is the center piece of educating America’s youth. His patriotism led him to remold the education of young people. He believed that every young person, no matter their social economic status, sex, or cultural heritage should be educated.

Webster, a teacher while earning his college degree, witnessed that learning literacy was a challenge for the youth of America. Webster set out to improve the separate entities of language, both spoken and written. He simplified and regulated the spelling of words, utilizing didactical marks for punctuation; this method eased the learning of spelling and pronunciation (Webster, 1843). Webster (1843) also noted that spoken language involved the correct articulation of words utilizing an intricate team of the throat, tongue, palate, teeth, and lips. He believed that teachers should be looked upon to model correct articulation and to correct students on the spot in order to ensure correct articulation of words spoken or read.

Webster (1843) also believed that written language was a way to communicate a variety of thoughts, and to be utilized in a global sense that could be transported from place to place. Webster saw grammar as the science of organizing words together, utilizing firm rules that were seen as a model of organized language in order to communicate effectively. He developed and used a systematic, sequential, letter-based or a phonics approach to teaching reading and writing.

Educators today continue to develop instructional curriculum and tools to ease literacy instruction and student practice of literacy. During a recent webinar, I was reminded of an instructional tool that can ease the instruction and learning of spelling vowel sounds. The tool helps to bring better transparency of the English language. This chart titled, The Spelling Chart (Moats/LETRS) was developed by Dr. Lousia Moats. It is part of her literacy instructional program LETRS. The chart displays the different spellings of 19 vowels sounds, like the long ā sound can be spelled as make, rain and vein or the short sound ŭ can be spelled cup, flood and tough.

References
Moats, L. (2019). Hard words: what teachers don’t know about teaching reading and what to do about it, pg 26, the vowel spelling chart. Voyager Sopris Learning, 2019 Webinar Series
Webster, N. (1790). Collection of essays and fugitive writings on moral, historical, political and literary subjects. Boston: Fauet’s Statue.
Webster, N. (1843). An improved grammar of the English language. New York: Webster & Clark

Structured Literacy Teacher, Instructional Knowledge

Structure Literacy Teacher (SLT) is a fairly new label, developed by the International Dyslexia Association (IDA), to describe the most effective form of instruction for students identified dyslexic.  This type of instruction is also effective for English Second Language (ESL) learners and for other students at-risk for literacy acquisition (Baker et al., 2014; Gersten et al., 2009).  Structured literacy instruction should include following instructional principles: 

  • systematic instruction, taught in logical order—builds upon prior knowledge
  • students should learn the foundational or prerequisite skills of the current lesson
  • explicit instruction, direct—clearly explained and teacher modeled
  • scaffolded instruction to match student abilities, providing exact temporary support
  • interactive discussions about the “new” task
  • multiple opportunities to practice the new task or skill
  • monitoring of student achievement through observation, interaction, and formal assessment

Structured literacy instruction includes six pillars or parts of literacy development—oral and written.  Structured literacy instruction should begin with Pillar 1, as each is dependent on the previous pillar(s).

Pillar 1 is phonology, the study of spoken sounds (phonemes)—rules of how sounds are encoded, such as why these sounds follow this pattern to form this sound(s). Individuals should have phoneme awareness skills before learning how to read.  This is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulated individuals sounds in spoken words.  Phoneme awareness is part of phonological awareness.  Phonological awareness is the ability to process and manipulate letter sounds, rhyming words, and segmenting of sounds within words. The study of phonology usually increases student ability to spell, pronounce, and comprehend written words. 

Pillar 2 is sound-symbol correspondences or the relationship(s) between phoneme(s) and grapheme(s).  This may be referred to as phonics instruction that teaches predictable or the constant rules of sound-symbol correspondences to produce written language.  At this stage students learn one-on-one correspondence, for example the written letter B represents this phoneme or sound.  It is important to note that some letters are represented by more than one sound, depending on the origin and spelling of the word.  Students begin decoding and encoding words as they begin to learn the sound-symbol correspondences.  Student knowledge of the phoneme(s) and grapheme(s) relationships usually increases student ability to read, comprehend, and spell written language.

Pillar 3 is syllable knowledge, the understanding of the different types of syllables.  Syllable knowledge increases the accuracy of language pronunciation and comprehension.  Syllable knowledge also increases student decoding and encoding skills.  The English language has six major types of syllables that are described in the following chart.

Type of syllable

Example

CVC

cat, log, bit, set, cut

Final e

kite, bone, bake, cute

Open

me, sky, be/gan, mu/sic, fe/ver

Vowel Diagraph

oi-soil, oil; ee-sleep, keep; ea-beat, leak; oa-boat, road; oo-zoom, smooth

r-controlled

ar-car, start; ir-girl, swirl; er-her, flower; ur-fur, burn; or-fork, corn 

Constant-le

marble, puddle, bugle, maple, little

Pillar 5 of structured literacy instruction is syntax or the study of sentence structure.  The principles that dictate the sequence and function of words in a sentence.  These principles are also referred to as the mechanics, grammar, and variation of a sentence. Pillar 4 is morphology that is the study of the smallest units of meaning or morphemes.  Morphology focuses on how parts of meaning fit together to form words and new meaning.  Word analysis helps students to learn the meaning(s) of morphemes and how the word parts conclude its meaning.  Word analysis also increases student background knowledge, which increases student ability to comprehend written passages. 

The more common parts of a sentence.

Parts of a sentence

Definition

Examples

Verb

describes the action

bark, ran, call, like

Adverb

modifies a verb, helps to clarify or further define a verb

warmly, quiet, loudly, today, outside

Noun

person, place or thing

house, dog, car, book

Adjective

modifies a noun, adjusts the meaning or further defines the noun to clarify meaning

beautiful, dark, old

Article

determiners, modifies and precedes a noun

a, an, the

Preposition

usually precedes a noun and in relation to another word in the clause

at, in, on, with, for, about, of, after

Conjunction

connecting words, they connect clauses and sentences

and, but, if

Pillar 6 of structured literacy is semantics or study of the meaning of words, symbols, and units of words.  A person’s lexicon stores the meaning of words, symbols, and units of words—vocabulary.  People begin to develop their lexicon at birth. Individuals attach meaning to tones of sound.  These meanings are adjusted as individuals are introduced to new tones or meanings.  Individuals transfer the meaning of tones (voice) to symbols (print) as they learn how to read and write.  To better understand words and groups of words teachers often use concept maps to examine the definition of a word.   Students identify the related synonyms and antonyms of the word.  Students often identify or attach pictures to a word or groups of words.  Semantics assist in attaching inferred meaning to written and oral verbiage.  Semantics can include morphology.

You can find details about becoming a certified Structured Literacy Teacher on the IDA website.

References

Baker, S., Lesaux, N., Jayanthi, M., Dimino, J., Proctor, C.P., Morris, J., Gersten, R., Haymond, K., Kieffer, M.J., Linan-Thompson, S., & Newman-Gonchar, R. (2014).  Teaching academic content and literacy to English learners in elementary and middle school (NCEE 2014-4012).  Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications_reviews.aspx.

Gersten, R., Compton, D., Connor, C.M., Dimino, J., Santoro, L., Linan-Thompson, S., & Tilly, W.D. (2009). Assisting students struggling with reading: Response to intervention and multi-tier intervention for reading in the primary grades, a practice guide (NCEE 2009-4045). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications/practiceguides/.

 

Structure Literacy, Pillars 5 & 6

Pillar 5 of structured literacy instruction is syntax or the study of sentence structure.  The principles that dictate the sequence and function of words in a sentence.  These principles are also referred to as the mechanics, grammar, and variation of a sentence.  The more common parts of a sentence are:

  • Verb-describes the action
  • Adverb-modifies a verb, helps to clarify or further define a verb      Example: warmly, quiet, loudly, today, outside
  • Noun-person, place or thing
  • Adjective-modifies a noun, adjusts the meaning or further defines the noun to better clarify the meaning                                                                        Example: beautiful, dark, old
  • Article-modify a noun, like an adjective Example: a, an, the
  • Preposition-usually precedes a noun and in relation to another word      Example: at, in, on, with, for, about, after, of
  • Conjunction-connecting words, they connect clauses and sentences Example: and, but, if                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           One form of syntax is sentence diagramming.

See the source image

commons.wikimedia.org

Pillar 6 of structured literacy is semantics or study of the meaning of words, symbols, and units of words.  A person’s lexicon stores the meaning of words, symbols, and units of words—vocabulary.  People begin to develop their lexicon at birth. Individuals attach meaning to tones of sound.  These meanings are adjusted as individuals are introduced to new tones or meanings.  Individuals transfer the meaning of tones (voice) to symbols (print) as they learn how to read and write.  To better understand words and groups of words teachers often use concept maps to examine the definition of a word.   Students identify the related synonyms and antonyms of the word.  Students often identify or attach pictures to a word or groups of words.  Semantics assist in attaching inferred meaning to written and oral verbiage.  Semantics can include morphology.

References

Birsh, J.R. (2011). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills.  Baltimore:  Paul H. Brookes Pub Co.

Henry, Marcia K. (2010).  Unlocking literacy effective decoding and spelling instruction.   Baltimore:  Paul H. Brookes Pub Co.

International Dyslexia Association, dyslexiaida.org/what-is-structured-literacy/

Moats, L. (2000). Speech to print. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Pub Co.

 

Oral Language Development-Phonological Awareness56

Phonological awareness skills are developed through a child’s environment.  Children are learning what types of words to use for particular situations, based on “modeled” oral language. Children are forming their natural responses to the words heard, based on the responses heard.  Children are learning how to form words and sentences based upon what they are hearing throughout their day.  I will also argue that children learn how to form verbal responses based on more than their sense of hearing.  Children also form language through touching, seeing, smelling, and tasting.  Individuals have different types of environmental influence that assist in developing their oral language. 

There are different “layers” of influence in developing oral language or verbiage that becomes written language.  The first influence is the home.  The second influence is where the child spends most of their day—school, daycare, etc.  The third layer is those brief encounters with other individuals that may occur during the day, such as listening to a store clerk.  In today’s world, “the media/technology” has also become a factor in language development.  The amount of exposure/interaction time dictates the amount of influence.  The amount of natural phonological awareness skills that a student possesses when entering the formal classroom depends on the exposure within the different layers of language development.

Phonological awareness is the ability to process letter sounds, rhyming words, and segmenting letters within words.  These skills may be purposely taught throughout the day before children arrive at school or formal education.  Simply stopping and helping a child sound out the correct pronunciation of a word—segmenting each sound, such as /c/ /a/ /t/ is a form of phonological awareness development.  Reading a book that emphasizes the alphabet and adding the sound of the letter is another form of phonological awareness development.  Reading poetry or books that included rhyming words—Dr. Suess—is a form of phonological awareness development.  Formal or purposeful education of phonological awareness is usually woven within a child’s formal education.     

Phonological Awareness

Phonological awareness is a key cognitive function in learning how to read.  Phonological awareness skills are more important during the early years of education when children are learning to read (Vaessen & Blomert, 2009).  Phonological awareness skills are often used for initially processing letters into words that are coded into memory for future use in reading fluency and reading comprehension.  The reliance of students on phonological awareness skills often declines as their cognition develops, and proficient readers use their memory rather than the assistance of phonological awareness skills to decode written words.  Students’ level of phonological awareness is often used as a predictor for later reading skills.  High phonological awareness skills frequently void the effects of lower socioeconomic status (Nobel, Farah, & McCandliss, 2006).  Low phonological awareness can also lead to diagnoses of developmental phonological dyslexia. 

Phonological awareness is the ability to process letter sounds, rhyming words, and segmenting letters within words (Molfese et al., 2006).  Students use phonological awareness skills to process pseudowords or nonwords, and they provide the rules and sounds of letters to sound out these words.  Phonological awareness skills are developed through oral language.  Oral language is developed through child’s environment, which may happen through chance or purposeful conversations.  Earlier oral language skills often predict later phonological awareness skills (Peterson, Pennington, Shriberg, & Boada, 2009).  The phonological processing skills of children usually determine their rate of letter identification (Molfese et al., 2006).

References

Molfese V., Modglin, A., Desbick, J., Neamon, J., Berg, S., Berg, C., & Mohar, A. (2006). Letter knowledge, phonological processing, and print knowledge:  Skill development in nonreading preschool children.  Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(4), 296-305.

Peterson, R., Pennington, B., Shriberg, L., & Boada, R. (2009).  What influences literacy outcome in children with speech sound disorder?  Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 52, 1175-1188.

Vaessen, A., & Blomert, L. (2009).  Long-term cognitive dynamics of fluent reading development.  Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 105, 213-231.

Reading Your Environment

The summer break from the school classroom allows more time to explore and expand our knowledge and strengthen our literacy skills through our surrounding environment. Most adults do not take the time to explore and ponder our environment. Partly because we may already know what a sign means or what an object is or the information presented does not seem important to us. Accompanying children often miss the opportunity to learn or build their comprehension bank as adults are not taking the time to stop and explain or read the information aloud with them to absorb or ponder. This does not mean that you have to stop at every opportunity. But making the time to stop when these opportunities arise can ease the process for children in developing new literacy brain connections and/or reinforcing established connections. The opportunities for exploring our environment/world are endless; many are natural, some need to be planned. Some suggestions of planned exploration are explained in the following paragraphs.

Visit a museum. Museums are usually an opportunity for children to practice their reading skills and learn new things. I do suggest museums that included opportunities for children to touch and explore. Museums usually have opportunities for children or young adults to read information about the different displays or activities. Many museums will have opportunities for individuals to take part in different kinds of activities. The activities can include: a) digging for fossils or relicts that may explain how individuals lived in that area, b) exploring how magnets work, c) exploring how the human body works, d) planting flowers or vegetables, or e) building with Legos. The list of possible activities for children to participate in will depend on the focus and resources of the museum. Museums can also create curiosity that may lead to opportunities to research information learned further at home or at a library. While at museums children are expanding their knowledge through oral and printed words. Children are also expanding their knowledge or building new brain connections through their sense of touch.

Go for a walk or hike. Many communities have trails that include signs along the way to explain a special feature or plant. Most trails will have signs for you to follow to ensure that you’re going in the right direction. Many trails will have signs about special places, plants or wildlife. Stop and read the signs with your children and assist them in understanding what the signs mean. Most trails will include wildlife and plants. Stop and exam the structure of a plant or talk about how the plant receives nutrients. Or stop and observe an animal, maybe it has young or is gathering food. Talk about safe and unsafe animals and how to spot them. If you’re not native to walking or hiking, I do recommend that you ask others about the walk or hike and what you might need to take with you on your journey.

Visit a state and/or national park. They can be good source to increase and strengthen literacy brain connections. Each park will have a focus and all parks are not the right park for you and your family. Most parks do offer activities for individuals age 0-99. The focus of the park will dictate the opportunities available, some will allow fishing others will not. Some will offer programs for children to learn about native animals, plants, or the stars. Some may include touring caves, gold mines, or rock climbing. Many parks will also include guided or self-tours for the whole family. All parks will have opportunities for individuals to read written words.

Visit a bookstore that has sections of books for children and young adults to explore. I tend to gravitate towards Barnes and Noble, because they usually carry books on every topic and genre for individuals age 0-100. Bookstores often have story time that give children an opportunity to listen to a story. Some stores also include activities for children to complete after the story. Some stores will also have activities for young adults, like book clubs or book discussions on a particular book(s).

Visit a library-get a library card. Libraries can also be a wonderful place to read about the environment. Libraries can be a time to sit and read with your children. Libraries often have story time that follow with activities for children to complete. Most libraries offer the opportunity to download a book to read at home. Most libraries will have audio versions of a book that allow children or young adults to either listen to or read along with the audio. Many libraries will have a summer program for children to participate in.

Driving in your vehicle. The road can be an opportunity to read your environment. Look for a particular sign. Read license plates—look for particular states, letters, or numbers. Read mileage signs; discuss your destination—how many miles do we still need to go?, what is the next town?, etc. Read signs about a town or community along your way. Discuss what the color of each road sign means.

Read the store while shopping. Read the ingredients included in the can or package with your child. Read the signs of where to find things. Read the labels on the boxes. If you have a pet or if your thinking about getting one, visit the pet section. Talk about the different varieties of beds or fish tanks. What will be or is best for your pet. Discuss the different types of fish and how to best care for each type of fish.

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