Author: Jennifer S. Ray, PhD, C-SLT

Teaching literacy became a passion of mine while raising my children. The knowledge that I learned through my experiences in teaching literacy at home and in the classroom over the past 28 years fueled my drive to earn a PhD in Education with a focus in Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment. My graduate work centered on the curriculum, instruction, and assessment of literacy acquisition. I have a particular interest in dyslexia and discovering those students who may benefit from early intervention through a response to intervention program. I also enjoy reading, visiting state and national parks, and shopping.

How the Brain Processes Written Language

Reading is not a natural activity; it is a learned process (Wolf, 2007). The process of reading is very complex, using several highways and side-roads to effectively analyze written forms into usable information. The process of learning how to read begins at birth when babies begin attaching sounds to meaning. The brain also begins attaching visual or picture forms to sounds and meaning. The natural foundation or wiring for reading is dependent on your genetics and its growth is dependent on your environment.

Most individuals are genetically wired to develop the basic or initial letter and word processing networks to analyze and convert written words into usable meaning. The natural wiring includes three different regions of the brain that individuals use to process written words in meaning (Pugh et al. 2000; Eden, 2004). These regions are located in the left hemisphere of the brain. The first region is the anterior—interior front gyrus or Broca’s area of the brain (Pugh et al., 2000). This region is responsible for processing articulatory recoding or phonological processing (Pugh et al., 2000; Moats, 2014). This region connects letters to sounds. The second region of the brain is the temporoparietal or Wernicke’s gyri (Pugh et al., 2000). This area of the brain is known for processing orthography or visual representation into phonology or patterns of speech and semantic or meaning. The third region that is necessary for fluid reading and meaning is the occipitotemporal or storage of familiar word forms (Pugh et al., 2000). This area stores words, their pronunciations, and their meaning. Some individuals do not have the natural wiring to learn how to read.

Individuals who have developmental dyslexia are not naturally wired to process written forms into speech and meaning. Researchers (Pugh, 2000; Eden, 2004; Hoeft, 2014) have learned through MRI imaging that individuals with developmental dyslexia initially only use the Anterior region of the brain or only one of the three regions necessary to effectively process written passages. The other two regions are initially not connected to the Anterior region. Dyslexics typically compensate using areas of the right side of the brain (Healy, 2010). The connections can be developed through direct, systematic instruction. Each individual student with dyslexia may need different types of intervention intensity to develop the necessary highways or bridges that connect the areas of brain that most individuals use to process written language.

References

International Dyslexia Association Conference (2013-2014) Dr. G. Eden, Dr. F. Hoeft, Dr. L. Moats, & Dr. K. Pugh

Healy, J. (2010). Different Learners. New York: Simon & Schuster

Wolf, M. (2007). Proust and the Squid. New York: Harper Perennial

ILA 2018 Book Choices and the Process of Writing

The International Literacy Association (ILA) released their book choice list for 2018, during a literacy session at their 2018 annual conference in Austin, Texas. The session featured Jeff Zentner, author of The Serpent King, which was a 2017 ILA book choice. Mr. Zentner discussed how he wrote The Serpent King. It was interesting to hear how he developed the theme, the characters, the plot, and actually wrote the book. He stressed that the process of writing the book took several months. He also stressed the need for boredom or time to think. He shared that much of the book was written in his head during the pre-writing process before actually committing words to paper. Mr. Zentner came up with the theme by meshing a couple of songs that he had written while playing in a band. He allowed the characters to come alive in his head, their personality, their actions, and their verbiage. He typed the words that flowed like a river on his cell phone in just 25 days. Much of the typing took place during his lunch break and on the subway to and from work. The writing process for him seemed like a hobby or a stress release from his intense position as a prosecuting attorney. He has written two other books, Goodbye Days (2017) and Rayne Delilah Midnite Matinee (2019).

This session reminded me that as educators we should consider the following when developing writing lessons:

the importance of the pre-writing process or the foundation of the written passage
writing is a higher cognitive processing skill that needs time to process or blend and bake
importance of background knowledge or student’s natural environment
the skills needed for each genre of writing, which may be different
writing takes time; the time needed may be different for each student
the first draft usually needs editing
students need time to free write or practice getting words on the paper without the fear of being wrong
students may need to learn how to develop a topic
what are the requirements of this writing assignment
who is my target audience
collaboration may strengthen the writing process
the importance of time spent reading

ILA’s book choices for 2018 can be found at https://www.literacyworldwide.org/

Membership is not required to access the booklist.

Using Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivational Strategies in Instruction

When designing curriculum and instruction educators should include strategies that motivate students to participate in the learning process. Instruction should move and increase natural or intrinsic motivation. Students are motivated through touching, smelling, hearing, seeing, and tasting. Students are also motivated through social connections and activities, such as friendships and group work. Students are also motivated through organized purpose, such as assembling and preserving things. Motivation begins, McClelland (1985) argued, with the initial stimulation or attention grabber. Students also use their past academic histories to formulate the type of response and involvement level that they give to the lesson. Students will seek opportunities and activities that lead to academic success and to avoid those that lead to failure or shame. It is important to understand the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

What is intrinsic motivation? Intrinsic motivation is student’s internal drive. Students are born with natural or intrinsic motivation—curiosity, ambition, and emotions (Wilson & Wilson, 1921). Intrinsic motivation changes as students mature. Students environmental interactions can have an effect intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation usually determines student academic achievement. Gambrell (2011) suggested that reading instruction can increase intrinsic motivation levels through: a) access to multiple genres, (b) choice, (c) time, (d) success in advanced level texts, (e) collaboration regarding the text, (f) relevance to the reading assignment, and (g) incentives.

What is extrinsic motivation? Extrinsic or external motivation is the components within our environment that stimulate action. Extrinsic motivation is dependent on the past and current learning environments of students. Each student will have different extrinsic motivators that can be used to enhance the learning process in the classroom, for example a student who traveled to China can share their experience adding to the curriculum knowledge of the lesson. The location of the instruction can impact the lesson. Students who are presented a lesson in a noisy hallway may be less engaged in the lesson. A student may enjoy writing using computer software better than using a pencil and paper. Students may be more willing to listen and focus on the lesson if they know that their recess will be shortened. Extrinsic motivation can be used to develop intrinsic motivation.

The following instructional strategies have shown to increase student motivation towards participation in the learning process:

Schedules and Routines. Develop classroom schedules and routines to increase student motivation and achievement. McClelland (1985) argued that children from homes where parents follow consistent schedules, such as when to eat and use the bathroom, have higher achievement rates in school. Children begin to learn how to regulate their needs through regular schedules. Weiner (1974) also argued that reinforcement schedules assist students in developing higher levels of cognition. He believed that reinforcement schedules enforce positive behaviors and redirect negatives behaviors.

Incentives and Goals. Incentives and goals can increase intrinsic motivation. Incentives can increase students’ intrinsic motivation in learning how to read (Gambrell, 2001). Tangible rewards should be relevant to the activity, such as giving a book to a student in order to honor his or her reading achievement. Students are usually more motivated to meet a goal with a checklist of requirements for the goal or assignments (Servilio, 2009). The checklist gives students a road-map of what should be accomplished and what has already been accomplished. When using a checklist, students learn organization and responsibility skills. Students with a goal and purpose have a higher level of motivation towards learning skills that are difficult to them.

Collaboration in Small Groups. Research suggests that student motivation often increases when students collaborate with others in small group settings. Student motivation increases when students collaborate with and assist their classmates in exploring, analyzing, and reflecting on their chosen topic (Hsiao, Lin, Fang, & Li, 2010). Students with higher interpersonal skills benefit more from working in small groups than from working alone. Mihandoost, Elias, Nor, and Mahmud (2011) found that small group work increases student motivation in reading for students with dyslexia. Intrinsic motivation improves when students use technology to complete assignments in small groups that consist of one student and one instructor or two students (Reed-Swale, 2009).

Student Choice. Student motivation increases when students are given choices within the instructional lesson (Chu, Tse, Loh, & Chow, 2011; Gambrell, 2011; Mihandoost, Elias, Nor, & Mahmud, 2011; Schiefele, Schaffner, Möller, & Wigfield, 2012; Servilio, 2009). Researchers argued that student achievement in reading comprehension increases when students are given the opportunity to read literature of their own choosing. Students’ engagement in reading instruction increases when students are given the opportunity to make choices about how to complete the assignment during differentiated instruction (Servilio, 2009). Student motivation in reading increases when students are given the option of choosing the reading texts (Gambrell, 2011).

Relatable and Relevant. Teachers should select literature that is relatable. Students can better relate to characters through drama. Students are more motivated to understand the meaning of a literature passage when they are given the opportunity to recite and define the literature passage. Wilson and Wilson (1921) believed that students are motivated to strengthen their reading skills when they learn about different subjects they are interested in, such as baseball or bugs. Wilson and Wilson also suggested that oral reading or songs and games can motivate students during English language arts lessons.

The right instructional strategies can improve student motivation towards learning. Instructional strategies should be developed to increase ownership of the lesson. Instructional strategies should energize and spark interest of the topic.

References

Chu, S.K.W., Tse, S.K., Loh, E.K.Y., & Chow, K. (2011). Collaborative inquiry project-based learning: Effects on reading ability and interests. Library & Information Science Research, 33(3), 236-243. doi: 10.1016/j.list.2010.09.008

Gambrel, L. (2011). Motivation in the school reading curriculum. Journal of Reading Education, 37(1), 5-14.

Hsiao, H.-S., Lin, C.-C., Fang, R.-T., & Li, K.-J. (2010). Location based services for outdoor ecological learning system: Design and implementation. Educational Technology & Society, 13(4), 98-111.

McClelland, D. (1985). Human motivation. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Mihandoost, Z., Elias, H., Nor, S., & Mahmud, R. (2011). The effectiveness of the intervention program on reading fluency and reading motivation of students with dyslexia. Asian Social Science 7(3), 187-199.

Reed-Swale, T.W (2009). Engaging digital natives in a digital world teaching more than web design. Synergy Learning, 22(128), 22-25.

Schiefele, U., Schaffner, E., Moller, J., & Wigfield, A. (2012). Dimensions of reading motivation and their relation to reading behavior and competence. Reading Research Quarterly,47(4), 427-463. doi: 10.1002/RRQ.030

Servilio, K. (2009). You get to choose! Motivating students to read through differentiated instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children Plus, 5(5), Article 5. Retrieved November 7, 2012 from http://escholarship.bc.edu/education/tecplus/vol5/iss5/art5

Weiner, B. (1974). Achievement motivation and attribution theory. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.

Wilson, H.B., & Wilson, G.M. (1921). The motivation of school work. Cambridge, MA: The Riverside Press.

What is Dyslexia?

Dyslexia has been woven in the fabric of society for centuries. Dyslexia often goes unnoticed, as the severity or effects of dyslexia are different for each individual. Some individuals are better at masking the effects than others. This has made defining dyslexia a challenge.

In my research of dyslexia, I stumbled upon Dr. James Hinshelwood, an optical surgeon who worked at the Glasgow Eye Infirmary in Scotland during the 1890s through the early 1920s. Some of his findings and definitions of word-blindness help to better understand the scope of the learning issue and why the definition has been hard to corral.

The following notes are from Hinshelwood’s (1917) research about individuals who struggle at learning how to read that were referred to the Glasgow Eye Infirmary or to an ophthalmologist for an examination. As a result, Hinshelwood discovered that one student could not read more than two or three words by sight. The student could only read if he or she was allowed to spell the words aloud one letter at a time or by moving his or her lips because the voiced word engaged the auditory memory, and the lip movement engaged speech or kinesthetic memory. Hinshelwood also examined several students with similar problems. For example, one student had healthy and normal vision, but he could not read any of the letters of the alphabet. However, he could recite the alphabet by memory. He could read a few words by spelling the words out letter by letter. When he viewed the same word a few sentences later, he did not recognize the word. The student had a good memory and excelled in his other subjects. Hinshelwood’s work at the Glasgow Eye Infirmary led to the discovery of word-blindness.

Hinshelwood (1917) believed that congenital word-blindness was difficult to fully comprehend and was often misdiagnosed. Hinshelwood noted that a German named Kussmaul determined that word blindness occurred when “complete text blindness may exist, although the power of sight, the intellect, and the powers of speech are intact” (p. 3). Hinshelwood also noted that word-blindness meant “a condition in which with normal vision and therefore seeing the letters and words distinctly, an individual is no longer able to interpret written or printed language” (p. 4). He believed that people could develop word-blindness as a result of family genetics or through injury. Hinshelwood focused on the genetic causes of word-blindness, which led to the following definitions.

Hinshelwood (1917) defined three different degrees of congenital word-blindness: (a) congenital word-blindness, (b) congenital dyslexia, and (c) congenital alexia. He defined congenital word-blindness as the “pure and grave cases of defect” (Hinshelwood, 1917, p. 70). Hinshelwood describes congenital dyslexia as a “slighter degrees of defect” (p. 70) or “great difficulty in interpreting written and printed symbols (Hinshelwood, 1900, p. 48). Professor Berlin of Stuttgart introduced the term dyslexia to describe a group of patients struggling to learn how to read, “due to the development of cerebral disease” (p. 60). Hinshelwood believed that congenital alexia was a defect in the visual memory center. The term congenital was noted to distinguish between natural and acquired.

Hinshelwood (1917) argued that each student diagnosed with word-blindness or dyslexia will have similar yet different characteristics and that diagnosis of students with word-blindness should begin in the regular education classroom. Teachers in these classrooms should refer those students who are struggling with learning to read to an eye doctor for a visual examination.

After years of research that produce multiple definitions of dyslexia the International Dyslexia Association (IDA) developed a Definition Consensus Project or a committee to corral the definition of dyslexia. On November 12, 2002, IDA adopted the following definition:

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.

After many years of research there are valid methods of diagnosing dyslexia, but it can still elude diagnosis. I will discuss more about how to diagnose dyslexia in future posts.

References

Hinshelwood, James. (1900). Letter-, word- and mind-blindness. London: H. K. Lewis.

Hinshelwood, James. (1917). Congenital word-blindness. London: H. K. Lewis.

Definition of Dyslexia (2002). International Dyslexia Association, Retrieved from: https://dyslexiaida.org/definition-of-dyslexia/, July 11, 2018.

Reading Your Environment

The summer break from the school classroom allows more time to explore and expand our knowledge and strengthen our literacy skills through our surrounding environment. Most adults do not take the time to explore and ponder our environment. Partly because we may already know what a sign means or what an object is or the information presented does not seem important to us. Accompanying children often miss the opportunity to learn or build their comprehension bank as adults are not taking the time to stop and explain or read the information aloud with them to absorb or ponder. This does not mean that you have to stop at every opportunity. But making the time to stop when these opportunities arise can ease the process for children in developing new literacy brain connections and/or reinforcing established connections. The opportunities for exploring our environment/world are endless; many are natural, some need to be planned. Some suggestions of planned exploration are explained in the following paragraphs.

Visit a museum. Museums are usually an opportunity for children to practice their reading skills and learn new things. I do suggest museums that included opportunities for children to touch and explore. Museums usually have opportunities for children or young adults to read information about the different displays or activities. Many museums will have opportunities for individuals to take part in different kinds of activities. The activities can include: a) digging for fossils or relicts that may explain how individuals lived in that area, b) exploring how magnets work, c) exploring how the human body works, d) planting flowers or vegetables, or e) building with Legos. The list of possible activities for children to participate in will depend on the focus and resources of the museum. Museums can also create curiosity that may lead to opportunities to research information learned further at home or at a library. While at museums children are expanding their knowledge through oral and printed words. Children are also expanding their knowledge or building new brain connections through their sense of touch.

Go for a walk or hike. Many communities have trails that include signs along the way to explain a special feature or plant. Most trails will have signs for you to follow to ensure that you’re going in the right direction. Many trails will have signs about special places, plants or wildlife. Stop and read the signs with your children and assist them in understanding what the signs mean. Most trails will include wildlife and plants. Stop and exam the structure of a plant or talk about how the plant receives nutrients. Or stop and observe an animal, maybe it has young or is gathering food. Talk about safe and unsafe animals and how to spot them. If you’re not native to walking or hiking, I do recommend that you ask others about the walk or hike and what you might need to take with you on your journey.

Visit a state and/or national park. They can be good source to increase and strengthen literacy brain connections. Each park will have a focus and all parks are not the right park for you and your family. Most parks do offer activities for individuals age 0-99. The focus of the park will dictate the opportunities available, some will allow fishing others will not. Some will offer programs for children to learn about native animals, plants, or the stars. Some may include touring caves, gold mines, or rock climbing. Many parks will also include guided or self-tours for the whole family. All parks will have opportunities for individuals to read written words.

Visit a bookstore that has sections of books for children and young adults to explore. I tend to gravitate towards Barnes and Noble, because they usually carry books on every topic and genre for individuals age 0-100. Bookstores often have story time that give children an opportunity to listen to a story. Some stores also include activities for children to complete after the story. Some stores will also have activities for young adults, like book clubs or book discussions on a particular book(s).

Visit a library-get a library card. Libraries can also be a wonderful place to read about the environment. Libraries can be a time to sit and read with your children. Libraries often have story time that follow with activities for children to complete. Most libraries offer the opportunity to download a book to read at home. Most libraries will have audio versions of a book that allow children or young adults to either listen to or read along with the audio. Many libraries will have a summer program for children to participate in.

Driving in your vehicle. The road can be an opportunity to read your environment. Look for a particular sign. Read license plates—look for particular states, letters, or numbers. Read mileage signs; discuss your destination—how many miles do we still need to go?, what is the next town?, etc. Read signs about a town or community along your way. Discuss what the color of each road sign means.

Read the store while shopping. Read the ingredients included in the can or package with your child. Read the signs of where to find things. Read the labels on the boxes. If you have a pet or if your thinking about getting one, visit the pet section. Talk about the different varieties of beds or fish tanks. What will be or is best for your pet. Discuss the different types of fish and how to best care for each type of fish.

Development of Reading Connections in the Brain

Translating written language into meaning or the process of reading is like completing a dot to dot picture. The brain has to connect the right dots or take the right highways and sideroads to deeply or fully comprehend written language. The complex process of connecting the right dots begins at conception, as brain connections are organized or cataloged through predetermined genetic design. The original or genetic organization can be altered or changed through a child’s environment.

Individuals are not naturally wired with the connections to process letters into usable information. The brain has to develop those connections to process written letters into useable information, which begins at birth through oral language. A child’s verbal communication connections serve as a reference for the process of developing written processing connections. Some children can more easily develop the right connections to use written language. Meaning they pick up letter names and their corresponding sounds and are able to build words and their meanings into usage information without purposeful instruction. Most children need planned instruction to learn each letter and the letter’s corresponding sound(s) and how to develop letters into meaningful words. Most children also need planned instruction to break down words into sounds and meaning. And some children will need explicit, systematic instruction to fully digest letters, words, and sentences into useable information. Understanding what type of literacy instruction children need will follow in a future post.

References

International Dyslexia Association Conference; Dr. Louisa Moats, Dr. F. Hoeft, & Dr. K. Pugh
Binet, A. & Simon, T. (1916) The development of intelligence in children. Williams & Wilkins Co.
Fowler, W. (1983). Potentials of childhood (Vol 1.) D.C. Health & Co.
Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1966). The psychology of the child. Basic Books.
Vygotsky, L. (1934). Thought and language. MIT Press.

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