Dyslexia – Page 2 – The Literacy Brain

More Instructional Support Strategies for Dyslexic Students

Individuals with dyslexia have brain processing issues, because their brains did not initially develop the same highways and byways to process written language. But many dyslexic students will have fluid oral communication skills. This may be why it has taken many years for society to recognize dyslexia as learning disability. Some students you will not recognize as dyslexic, others will jump up and down dyslexia. Boys tend to be diagnosed or show higher signs of dyslexia as they seem to squirm louder than girls.

Dyslexic students usually work twice as hard to learn how to read than the average student, as they are developing new brain connections. Teaching all students using rich Structure Literacy curriculum and instruction can reach most students. Taking brain breaks or moments of rest can the increase student motivation. My thought is that any students who is struggling to learn how to read and write should be supported in the process. Each dyslexic student will need different types of supports to develop the necessary highways and byways, as student environment plays a role in the brain development process. The earlier the intervention or supports are put into place the higher chance the student has to overcome the risk of literacy acquisition. The following dyslexic instructional strategies can be effective for any student at-risk in literacy.

Use highlighters or a marking code. A highlighter is a tool that students can use for various tasks. Students can use them to highlight important information that they may need for future tasks, such as writing or reading comprehension. Highlighters can be used to note different parts of texts, such as topic sentence, detail, conclusion, parts of a sentence, etc. Students can use different colors to signify different types of information. Students can also use boxes, circles, underline, stars, etc. to note the same things when different colored highlighters are not available. This technique is helpful to teach/model students by highlighting different parts of written language. This technique can also assist early writers in proof reading their writing.
Read the passage or words aloud at any volume. When students read the passage aloud, they are involving both their hearing and visual senses. Most dyslexic students already have good oral communication skills—they can effectively process heard information. Reading the passage aloud usually allows them to better comprehend the passage. In addition, students are using their visual sense to build or strengthen their brain connections for reading using just their vision. Whisper phones are a way for students to read written words aloud and not disrupt their fellow classmates. Some students will grow out of the need to use both their visual and hearing to comprehend the passage, while others will need to occasional use both senses.
Listen and follow along at grade-level. Students listen to a book on tape and read it with the tape or follow along. This is a good tool for students who can orally comprehend at grade-level, but not read the words and comprehend at grade-level. This strategy allows students to be exposed to grade-level information and it helps them to build and strengthen brain connections for reading to comprehend at grade-level. This strategy should be used along with other strategies to increase student achievement level. This strategy has been used for many years to teach primary students how to read. Students listen to an oral reading of a book or passage and follow along. Some of the computer programs have books or passages that can be read as the words are highlighted, but students need to follow along.
Discussing information read. Developing an environment where all students feel safe to share is key for the success of this strategy. Each student can bring their background/environment knowledge to the discussion. Many dyslexic students have strong backgrounds of knowledge and good oral communication skills. Discussing the read information can assist students in expanding their lexicon or student knowledge about a topic. Student discussion(s) can also increase their information processing highways and byways. This instructional strategy can also assist students in retaining the information read. This strategy can also strengthen student ability to communicate orally.
Encourage their interest, passion. When possible allow students to choose their topic of study. This usually increases engagement and intrinsic motivation. Some students will still “battle” the assignment or parts of the assignment. I usually use science topics during the primary and elementary school years to increase student engagement in a task. Most students can find an animal, insect that stirs their intrinsic motivation to read and write about. The topic can be narrowed, to a particular aspect of the animal.
Assistance in copying words from the board. Some dyslexic students struggle in copying words from the board or from a distance. This could be due to vision issues, which is usually an additional issue—not dyslexia. I usually lend them my notes or ask another student to assist them. Most can copy from a paper that is placed right next to the paper that they are writing on. Interactive word walls are excellent tools for students who struggle in copying from the board.

References

Gillingham, A. (1956). Remedial training for children with specific disability in reading, spelling, and penmanship. Massachusetts: Educators Publishing Service, Inc.

Hinshelwood, James. (1917). Congenital word-blindness. London: H.K. Lewis.

Instructional Support Strategies for Dyslexic Students

This post will reflect more dyslexic or at-risk instructional support strategies that assist classroom management to allow for literacy instruction and acquisition to take place.

Typically, there are, on average, three to five students in every classroom that are dyslexic. Dyslexia is an inherited gift that can be passed down generation to generation or skip a generation or sibling within a natural family. Dyslexia is also culturally blind. Boys tend to be diagnosed or show higher signs of dyslexia as they seem to squirm louder than girls. My thought is that any students who is struggling to learn how to read and write should be supported in the process. The earlier the intervention(s) or support(s) are put into place the higher chance the student has to overcome the risk of literacy acquisition.

The dyslexic instructional strategies discussed below will usually also increase the literacy achievement rate of English Second Language (ESL) students. Students diagnosed with dyslexia and students who are at-risk of literacy acquisition are often overwhelmed. These strategies usually decrease the anxiety and allow students to fully focus on the lesson or task at hand, which allows students to begin developing or strengthening brain connections to increase fluidity of their literacy skills.

Use a different colored folder for each subject of study. This is easier to orchestrate in Grades 3 and up, but can be accomplished in younger grade classrooms. The different colored folders should help students to find what they need a little faster than rummaging through their desk or cubby for their reference material or assignments. This also takes away some of the anxiety of remembering where it might be.
Post the schedule for each day. All students like to know how their day may unfold. This strategy is important for all grade levels. The schedule should be visible so that all students can view it from their seats, this usually increases student engagement. Schedule changes are hard for all students, especially students who are struggling to keep up academically. My schedule usually will show the time and topic. Sometimes I will include the actual name and details of the assignments. This will depend on your group of students and how you wish manage your classroom. It is also good to note future upcoming events. Developing and posting a schedule can also assist the teacher in lesson preparation.
Develop a routine. Routine is closely related to the schedule. The routine is what usually happens at the same time every day or on a set day of the week. The routine may include scheduled bathroom breaks, snack, and topic focused classes, like PE or tutoring that take place outside of the regular classroom. Routine helps students to stay engaged in the topic at hand, as they do not have to worry about when, where, and how lunch or snack may take place.
Develop reminders for you or the student(s). The strategies that you may use for the reminder may be different with each group of students. I tend to set alarms and at times backup alarms in the classroom if something has to be accomplished by a certain time, such as library time or students who need to go to another classroom. I also like to write assignments and due dates on the board. I also remind students to turn in their assignment or projects. Students can also serve as a reminder for other students. Students may have daily planners that they can use to write down the assignments and due dates. If students are overwhelmed with the assignment, they may need a one-on-one follow-up to accomplish the task.
Give brain breaks. A brain break allows the brain to relax from the intensity of learning or practicing of a skill. All students usually need brain breaks, especially dyslexic or students at-risk of grade level achievement. The type and length of a brain break may differ with each student. Some students may enjoy reading, while others may need to stretch. Breaks that include movement of more oxygen to the brain usually increases engagement in the classroom. Many teachers include brain breaks into their normal schedule; some students may need more.
Set goals. Goals can be established for various reasons, such as writing for 10 minutes or staying in their seat during instruction. Ideally, students should be involved in the process of setting the goal(s). This can be accomplished through conversation. It is good to write down the goal and to have discussions about the movement towards the accomplishment of the goal. This saves later arguments and misunderstandings. You may have to set goals based on your observation of student ability, such as once you finish this worksheet you may draw for 10 minutes. Some teachers give brain breaks as incentives for working or accomplishing a goal.

My next blog will focus more on instructional literacy strategies for dyslexic students.

Book Review-The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind

This is a book review of The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind. This is an example of a book that would be good to use during book clubs or a whole classroom group study.

Science in general has always been a fascination of mine, this may have stemmed from my childhood in rural America living on a ranch. However, I have used science as a catalyst over the years to teach literacy. I have yet to find a student who is not curious about something within science. When I was looking for a book about STEM education the book, The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind by William Kamkwamba and Bryan Mealer, jumped off the shelf at me. The title screams STEM education. STEM Education is learning about subjects within the disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. STEM education is taught through an integrated approach; one that offers hands-on and relevant learning experiences. The book is non-fiction and suggested for ages 10 and up or about Grade 5.

The book is about a boy, William Kamkwamba and how his creativity brought life-long changes for the small nation of Malawi, Africa. The book, written in first person, recalls how his family adjusted their lifestyle to survive during a famine. William describes the setting and culture of Malawi. He also describes the effects on humanity during a famine. He discusses how he recognized the need to develop ways to overcome the lack of rain that caused the famine. William describes how he used exploration to develop a contraption to collect and reissue electricity. He also describes the resources and individuals that helped him to obtain his goal of providing water year-round.

Structured Literacy Teacher, Instructional Knowledge

Structure Literacy Teacher (SLT) is a fairly new label, developed by the International Dyslexia Association (IDA), to describe the most effective form of instruction for students identified dyslexic. This type of instruction is also effective for English Second Language (ESL) learners and for other students at-risk for literacy acquisition (Baker et al., 2014; Gersten et al., 2009). Structured literacy instruction should include following instructional principles:

systematic instruction, taught in logical order—builds upon prior knowledge
students should learn the foundational or prerequisite skills of the current lesson
explicit instruction, direct—clearly explained and teacher modeled
scaffolded instruction to match student abilities, providing exact temporary support
interactive discussions about the “new” task
multiple opportunities to practice the new task or skill
monitoring of student achievement through observation, interaction, and formal assessment

Structured literacy instruction includes six pillars or parts of literacy development—oral and written. Structured literacy instruction should begin with Pillar 1, as each is dependent on the previous pillar(s).

Pillar 1 is phonology, the study of spoken sounds (phonemes)—rules of how sounds are encoded, such as why these sounds follow this pattern to form this sound(s). Individuals should have phoneme awareness skills before learning how to read. This is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulated individuals sounds in spoken words. Phoneme awareness is part of phonological awareness. Phonological awareness is the ability to process and manipulate letter sounds, rhyming words, and segmenting of sounds within words. The study of phonology usually increases student ability to spell, pronounce, and comprehend written words.

Pillar 2 is sound-symbol correspondences or the relationship(s) between phoneme(s) and grapheme(s). This may be referred to as phonics instruction that teaches predictable or the constant rules of sound-symbol correspondences to produce written language. At this stage students learn one-on-one correspondence, for example the written letter B represents this phoneme or sound. It is important to note that some letters are represented by more than one sound, depending on the origin and spelling of the word. Students begin decoding and encoding words as they begin to learn the sound-symbol correspondences. Student knowledge of the phoneme(s) and grapheme(s) relationships usually increases student ability to read, comprehend, and spell written language.

Pillar 3 is syllable knowledge, the understanding of the different types of syllables. Syllable knowledge increases the accuracy of language pronunciation and comprehension. Syllable knowledge also increases student decoding and encoding skills. The English language has six major types of syllables that are described in the following chart.

Type of syllable	Example
CVC	cat, log, bit, set, cut
Final e	kite, bone, bake, cute
Open	me, sky, be/gan, mu/sic, fe/ver
Vowel Diagraph	oi-soil, oil; ee-sleep, keep; ea-beat, leak; oa-boat, road; oo-zoom, smooth
r-controlled	ar-car, start; ir-girl, swirl; er-her, flower; ur-fur, burn; or-fork, corn
Constant-le	marble, puddle, bugle, maple, little

Pillar 5 of structured literacy instruction is syntax or the study of sentence structure. The principles that dictate the sequence and function of words in a sentence. These principles are also referred to as the mechanics, grammar, and variation of a sentence. Pillar 4 is morphology that is the study of the smallest units of meaning or morphemes. Morphology focuses on how parts of meaning fit together to form words and new meaning. Word analysis helps students to learn the meaning(s) of morphemes and how the word parts conclude its meaning. Word analysis also increases student background knowledge, which increases student ability to comprehend written passages.

The more common parts of a sentence.

Parts of a sentence	Definition	Examples
Verb	describes the action	bark, ran, call, like
Adverb	modifies a verb, helps to clarify or further define a verb	warmly, quiet, loudly, today, outside
Noun	person, place or thing	house, dog, car, book
Adjective	modifies a noun, adjusts the meaning or further defines the noun to clarify meaning	beautiful, dark, old
Article	determiners, modifies and precedes a noun	a, an, the
Preposition	usually precedes a noun and in relation to another word in the clause	at, in, on, with, for, about, of, after
Conjunction	connecting words, they connect clauses and sentences	and, but, if

Pillar 6 of structured literacy is semantics or study of the meaning of words, symbols, and units of words. A person’s lexicon stores the meaning of words, symbols, and units of words—vocabulary. People begin to develop their lexicon at birth. Individuals attach meaning to tones of sound. These meanings are adjusted as individuals are introduced to new tones or meanings. Individuals transfer the meaning of tones (voice) to symbols (print) as they learn how to read and write. To better understand words and groups of words teachers often use concept maps to examine the definition of a word. Students identify the related synonyms and antonyms of the word. Students often identify or attach pictures to a word or groups of words. Semantics assist in attaching inferred meaning to written and oral verbiage. Semantics can include morphology.

You can find details about becoming a certified Structured Literacy Teacher on the IDA website.

References

Baker, S., Lesaux, N., Jayanthi, M., Dimino, J., Proctor, C.P., Morris, J., Gersten, R., Haymond, K., Kieffer, M.J., Linan-Thompson, S., & Newman-Gonchar, R. (2014). Teaching academic content and literacy to English learners in elementary and middle school (NCEE 2014-4012). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications_reviews.aspx.

Gersten, R., Compton, D., Connor, C.M., Dimino, J., Santoro, L., Linan-Thompson, S., & Tilly, W.D. (2009). Assisting students struggling with reading: Response to intervention and multi-tier intervention for reading in the primary grades, a practice guide (NCEE 2009-4045). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications/practiceguides/.

Grouping Students for Instruction

Meeting the instructional needs of all students is a bit overwhelming! There are some instructional approaches that can help teachers to better meet the challenge. One approach is teaching students in small groups, 4 to 6 students. Student groups can be developed using different formulas based on the intended outcome of the small group instruction. Small groups allow for more “intimate” or one-on-one conversation that help you, the teacher form a better idea of their academic and social needs. They also allow teachers to monitor and or scaffold student interactions, like collaboration or discussions. Every student wants their voice heard; each student needs to learn how to listen to others. Small group instruction gives the teacher opportunity to teach focused lessons that may include a new task or reteaching of a previous task. Small group instruction also allows for the other groups of students to practice a task, new or old.

Some of the reasons that I develop groups of students are to:

Develop social skills, usually 2-4 students
Group projects, can be efficient with 2-6 students depending on the project to be completed
Learning level instruction—most classrooms will have 3-5 different learning levels for math and reading, 4-6 students, grouped by data
Reviewing
Introducing

When working with a new group of students, I often use different ways of building groups, such as student choice, drawing names, or numbering students. When grouping students by ability to teach, I tend to focus on the data—current assessments and observations. I usually ask the following questions when I group or regroup students.

What is the activity?
What should the final outcome look like?
How will students react to the task?
What is the learning level of students? Will they need help in completing the task? Who would be most helpful to those needing assistance? Not completing the task for them, but leading them to the completion of the task.
Who will be here for the lesson? Most classrooms have students entering and exiting the classrooms throughout the day.
How will students work together?
How many “parts” to the task? I asked this question when grouping students for group projects.

When grouping students remember that each group is growing and may need adjusting along the way.

TALE Conference Handout

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Diagnosing Dyslexia

The information in this blog is focused on developmental dyslexia, which is acquired through genetics. Usually, students who acquire dyslexia through environmental causes can be flagged or diagnosed using the same information.

The definition of dyslexia is:

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge (International Dyslexia Association, 2002).

I am not big fan of labeling students for various reasons, but labeling must occur if the student is not getting the support and instruction that they need to acquire literacy skills. Students will continue to struggle to acquire and use grade-level literacy skills, if they do not learn foundational literacy skills during their early elementary school days. Most students can receive the support and instruction that they need to remain at grade-level through a response to intervention (RTI) or multitiered program. RTI is a program that when implemented with fidelity can provide instructional lessons at student learning level, in addition to their regular classroom literacy instruction. Some students will need more intense intervention that may include special education services, which requires the development of a 504 or IEP plan. This will depend on your school’s literacy program and student learning needs.

Diagnosing dyslexia can be tricky and complex. Dyslexia affects approximately 3 of every 20 students. Dyslexia is blind to ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Some students will “scream” dyslexia, many will not. Some students will never be diagnosed. Children of parents diagnosed with developmental dyslexia have a 50% higher chance of having dyslexia. It is also important to note that students can show traits of dyslexia, but not have developmental dyslexia.

Diagnosing dyslexia usually begins with a screening of student literacy skills. A screening is a series of short probes or assessments used to learn student reading ability. Most schools universally screen students three times a year. Universal screenings can flag students who may have dyslexia, this will depend on the reading probes used to screen students. Some probes have a stronger correlation to reading deficits normally found in individuals diagnosed with dyslexia. Student knowledge of phonological awareness is a stronger flag until Grade 2, when rapid automatized naming tests (RAN) or reading fluency probes become a stronger flag (Ray, 2017). Usually students that show a deficit in decoding nonsense words are dyslexic. Teacher observations of student reading ability can strengthen the validity of a word decoding outcome. There are also “private” on-line screenings. Use on-line screening with caution, as not all screenings are valid. The Shaywitz DyslexiaScreenTM was developed by Dr. Sally Shaywitz, a professor and researcher in Learning Development at Yale University. This screening can be used for students in kindergarten and Grade 1. The screener can be found at https://dyslexia.yale.edu/, the Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity. Students who show signs of literary deficits or traits of dyslexia may be assessed deeper or more extensively by a trained educational professional.

Diagnosing Dyslexia

The Gillingham (1955) formula of diagnosing dyslexia was developed by Anne Gillingham while she was working for Dr. Samuel Orton in the early 1900s. She believed that standardized achievement tests were not a valid method to diagnose students’ reading deficits or to place students in remediation. Gillingham determined that the following seven assessments should be given to students one year before beginning reading instruction: (a) intelligence, (b) optical or vision, (c) family history, (d) motor pattern or skills, (e) visual sensory recall skills, (f) auditory sensory recall skills, and (g) kinesthetic sensory skills. The data from each assessment should be compiled and analyzed for each child. The child is then placed into a classroom setting, based on the analyzed outcome of these assessment. Gillingham noted that when students were assessed correctly and place in the proper programs, many of the emotional issues disappeared. Gillingham also noted that occasionally the analyzed placement needed to be revisited as the child progressed through their formal education. Gillingham (1956) believed that teachers in the regular classroom were the first to identify students at-risk for reading acquisition.

Today, dyslexia can be diagnosed by a neuropsychologist who specializes in educational disabilities, in particular dyslexia. The process includes three or four hours of testing that can be quit tiring for students. Most public schools do not have licensed psychologists trained to administer the depth of assessment required to diagnose dyslexia. Students can also be diagnosed using MRI imaging. This method of diagnosis should be used with caution, as very few people know how to conduct or correctly read the MRI screening images for dyslexia traits.

Ray, J.S. (2017). Tier 2 interventions for students in grades 1-3 identified as at-risk in reading. (Doctoral dissertation, Walden University). Retrieved from https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/3826/

How the Brain Processes Written Language

Reading is not a natural activity; it is a learned process (Wolf, 2007). The process of reading is very complex, using several highways and side-roads to effectively analyze written forms into usable information. The process of learning how to read begins at birth when babies begin attaching sounds to meaning. The brain also begins attaching visual or picture forms to sounds and meaning. The natural foundation or wiring for reading is dependent on your genetics and its growth is dependent on your environment.

Most individuals are genetically wired to develop the basic or initial letter and word processing networks to analyze and convert written words into usable meaning. The natural wiring includes three different regions of the brain that individuals use to process written words in meaning (Pugh et al. 2000; Eden, 2004). These regions are located in the left hemisphere of the brain. The first region is the anterior—interior front gyrus or Broca’s area of the brain (Pugh et al., 2000). This region is responsible for processing articulatory recoding or phonological processing (Pugh et al., 2000; Moats, 2014). This region connects letters to sounds. The second region of the brain is the temporoparietal or Wernicke’s gyri (Pugh et al., 2000). This area of the brain is known for processing orthography or visual representation into phonology or patterns of speech and semantic or meaning. The third region that is necessary for fluid reading and meaning is the occipitotemporal or storage of familiar word forms (Pugh et al., 2000). This area stores words, their pronunciations, and their meaning. Some individuals do not have the natural wiring to learn how to read.

Individuals who have developmental dyslexia are not naturally wired to process written forms into speech and meaning. Researchers (Pugh, 2000; Eden, 2004; Hoeft, 2014) have learned through MRI imaging that individuals with developmental dyslexia initially only use the Anterior region of the brain or only one of the three regions necessary to effectively process written passages. The other two regions are initially not connected to the Anterior region. Dyslexics typically compensate using areas of the right side of the brain (Healy, 2010). The connections can be developed through direct, systematic instruction. Each individual student with dyslexia may need different types of intervention intensity to develop the necessary highways or bridges that connect the areas of brain that most individuals use to process written language.

References

International Dyslexia Association Conference (2013-2014) Dr. G. Eden, Dr. F. Hoeft, Dr. L. Moats, & Dr. K. Pugh

Healy, J. (2010). Different Learners. New York: Simon & Schuster

Wolf, M. (2007). Proust and the Squid. New York: Harper Perennial

What is Dyslexia?

Dyslexia has been woven in the fabric of society for centuries. Dyslexia often goes unnoticed, as the severity or effects of dyslexia are different for each individual. Some individuals are better at masking the effects than others. This has made defining dyslexia a challenge.

In my research of dyslexia, I stumbled upon Dr. James Hinshelwood, an optical surgeon who worked at the Glasgow Eye Infirmary in Scotland during the 1890s through the early 1920s. Some of his findings and definitions of word-blindness help to better understand the scope of the learning issue and why the definition has been hard to corral.

The following notes are from Hinshelwood’s (1917) research about individuals who struggle at learning how to read that were referred to the Glasgow Eye Infirmary or to an ophthalmologist for an examination. As a result, Hinshelwood discovered that one student could not read more than two or three words by sight. The student could only read if he or she was allowed to spell the words aloud one letter at a time or by moving his or her lips because the voiced word engaged the auditory memory, and the lip movement engaged speech or kinesthetic memory. Hinshelwood also examined several students with similar problems. For example, one student had healthy and normal vision, but he could not read any of the letters of the alphabet. However, he could recite the alphabet by memory. He could read a few words by spelling the words out letter by letter. When he viewed the same word a few sentences later, he did not recognize the word. The student had a good memory and excelled in his other subjects. Hinshelwood’s work at the Glasgow Eye Infirmary led to the discovery of word-blindness.

Hinshelwood (1917) believed that congenital word-blindness was difficult to fully comprehend and was often misdiagnosed. Hinshelwood noted that a German named Kussmaul determined that word blindness occurred when “complete text blindness may exist, although the power of sight, the intellect, and the powers of speech are intact” (p. 3). Hinshelwood also noted that word-blindness meant “a condition in which with normal vision and therefore seeing the letters and words distinctly, an individual is no longer able to interpret written or printed language” (p. 4). He believed that people could develop word-blindness as a result of family genetics or through injury. Hinshelwood focused on the genetic causes of word-blindness, which led to the following definitions.

Hinshelwood (1917) defined three different degrees of congenital word-blindness: (a) congenital word-blindness, (b) congenital dyslexia, and (c) congenital alexia. He defined congenital word-blindness as the “pure and grave cases of defect” (Hinshelwood, 1917, p. 70). Hinshelwood describes congenital dyslexia as a “slighter degrees of defect” (p. 70) or “great difficulty in interpreting written and printed symbols (Hinshelwood, 1900, p. 48). Professor Berlin of Stuttgart introduced the term dyslexia to describe a group of patients struggling to learn how to read, “due to the development of cerebral disease” (p. 60). Hinshelwood believed that congenital alexia was a defect in the visual memory center. The term congenital was noted to distinguish between natural and acquired.

Hinshelwood (1917) argued that each student diagnosed with word-blindness or dyslexia will have similar yet different characteristics and that diagnosis of students with word-blindness should begin in the regular education classroom. Teachers in these classrooms should refer those students who are struggling with learning to read to an eye doctor for a visual examination.

After years of research that produce multiple definitions of dyslexia the International Dyslexia Association (IDA) developed a Definition Consensus Project or a committee to corral the definition of dyslexia. On November 12, 2002, IDA adopted the following definition:

After many years of research there are valid methods of diagnosing dyslexia, but it can still elude diagnosis. I will discuss more about how to diagnose dyslexia in future posts.

References

Hinshelwood, James. (1900). Letter-, word- and mind-blindness. London: H. K. Lewis.

Hinshelwood, James. (1917). Congenital word-blindness. London: H. K. Lewis.

Definition of Dyslexia (2002). International Dyslexia Association, Retrieved from: https://dyslexiaida.org/definition-of-dyslexia/, July 11, 2018.

Category: Dyslexia

More Instructional Support Strategies for Dyslexic Students

Instructional Support Strategies for Dyslexic Students

Book Review-The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind

Structured Literacy Teacher, Instructional Knowledge

Grouping Students for Instruction

TALE Conference Handout

Diagnosing Dyslexia

How the Brain Processes Written Language

What is Dyslexia?

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