Category: language development

Increasing Student Wealth, Lexicon of Knowledge

Developing student lexicon* to increase comprehension of spoken and written language happens naturally and purposively. The environment that an individual lives in naturally develops their lexicon. For example if you live on a farm, you obsorb the knowledge/language of farm culture. The degree of farm language that you learn depends on the components of the farm that you are exposed to, and your degree of participation in the those components. The learned and stored information about farm life may be relevant in other cultures or life-styles. For example you may learn about record keeping that is applicable in every business. Or you may learn about the components of healthy food consumption that applicable to human development in any culture.

Where I was raised it was natural for most individuals to learn about fresh water fish, it was part of the community culture. It was natural to learn about the salmon run, where in a community near the ocean it may be more natural to learn about sea turtles or tide pools. The habitats, life-cycle, and behaviors of different types of fish have many similarities. Within a purposeful learning environment the study of fish usually gives the opportunity to introduce different cultures, geographical areas, bodies of water, etc. of where the fish reside. The similarities and differences help students to increase their lexicon to comprehend both seen and unseen language related to fish and their habitat. The new learned information about fish is then available to make new conclusions.

In the book How Lincoln Learned to Read,Wolff describes how 12 individuals were educated through their the culture or life-style. This is a non-fiction book that discusses individuals that made notable contributions to America. Some of individuals had great disabilities, some had wealth, and some were very poor. The book includes people and events that influenced their learning. Reading How Lincoln Learned to Read helps the reader to paint a picture of how individuals are educated inside and outside of the classroom and how a person gathers information to understand written and spoken language. The book also helps the reader to understand how early childhood education can influence adult choices.

One chapter of the book describes the education of Belle born to slaves. She was educated by her parents to function effectively within the institution of slavery. This was not the slavery of the plantation South, but of the Northern Dutch who had smaller farms. She had to learn that she was commodity and that staying with her parents could end at a very young age. The chapter also describes how her life evolved into a free woman and how she used prior knowledge to move her forward. Another chapter of the book describes how a girl named, Rachel was raised in hills without the conveniences of modern day technology. The chapter goes on to describe how she lost her father at age 11, forcing the family to move closer to her mother’s family. Where she was able gain a formal education through a private school. The chapter goes on to describe how she used the knowledge that she gained as a child her writing. Some of her writings about nature, the hills, set the stage for present science education. The book also describes individuals such as Abraham Lincoln, Henry Ford, and Benjamin Franklin.

*Students store spoken and written words in their lexicon or mental dictionary. Students increase their mental dictionary through their environment. Student lexicon is always adding new words, pictures, gestures, etc that may help them to better comprehend language. This development begins at birth. Their brain begins attaching meaning(s) to individual tones of sound. Students adjust their stored information as they are introduced to new sounds and their meaning(s). Students also adjust their stored information as new meaning(s) or connections are introduced to the stored information. For example, if you know that dogs shakes when it gets wet, but do not know that dogs may smell when they get wet. Then you experience the a bad odor of a wet dog. Your mental dictionary will adjust your stored information to be dogs shake and may smell when they get wet. The stored information may look similar to a spider web as the information is added and adjusted. Students transfer the stored meaning(s) of tones (voice) to symbols (print) as they learn how to read and write. Student lexicon also helps students to infer or conclude the unwritten or unspoken meaning of a conversation or writing.

Reference
Wolff, Daniel (2009). How Linclon Learned to Read. New York: Bloomsbury USA.

Why are we losing ground in the reading acquisition?

The 2019 National Assessment of Educational (NAEP) reading results show that the national reading scores fell 2% percent in Grade 4 and 4% in Grade 8. This does not sound like much until you put the number of students that one percentage point represents, approximately 1,500 students. One state, Mississippi, continued its positive climb. While 17 states scored 3%-4% points lower than the previous year. And the remaining states remained unchanged from the previous year. This means that the number of students reading at Basic or Below Basic grew from 63% to 65%. It is important to note that this is a sample of students from each state.

So, what is going on? What has created the backward descend in reading acquisition? One plausible reason maybe the time that students are spending in front of an electronic device. Students often spend one to three hours using a digital device at school and then another two to four hours looking at an electronic device at home. During this time students may be reading short messages or posts often written in uncomplete sentences. Students may be spending time scanning headlines or a few sentences of an article. Students might be interacting with the latest electronic game that may offer some occasions to read, usually incomplete sentences. In addition, I am observing that more and more teachers are using mostly “on-line” curriculum or lessons that require students to spend large amounts of time in front of the computer. This may be hindering student reading ability, as time spent in front of an electronic screen may limit student ability to develop deep-reading processes (Wolf, 2018). Deep-reading requires students to read the words at a slower rate, so that the words can move through the circuits of brain to pick up prior knowledge or come alive with meaning. Deep-reading is an interactive activity that uses more energy. Skimming or light reading requires less energy. In addition, current research is suggesting that students struggle with comprehending information in an on-line format (Cavalli, et al., 2019; Kanniainen, Kiili, Tolvanen, Aro, & Leppänen, 2019).

Furthermore, technology/computers change the way students process written language. The brain is an organ that will adapt to function within its environment. If the environment is rich with positive conversations and interactions of individuals of higher cognition then an individual’s brain will build circuits to function in that environment. Research suggests that students who have interactions with individuals of higher cognition usually learn, retain, and reuse information at a higher rate (Vygotsky, 1929). If the environment is rich with limited interactions of individuals and or limited exposure to conversations of higher cognition then the brain will build circuits to function in that environment. The brain needs regular mental and physical exercise of cognition as it matures to develop and maintain connections necessary to deeply process and comprehend verbal and written words (Healy, 1990; Wolf, 2018).


References
Healy, J. M. (1990). Endangered Minds. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbooks.
Wolf, Maryanne (2018). Reader, come home. The reading brain in a digital world. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
Vygotsky, L. (1929). The problem of the cultural development of a child II. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 36, 415-434. Vygotsky Reader, Blackwell. Retrieved from htts://www.marxists.org/archive/Vygotsky/works/1929
/cultural_development.htm.

Strong oral language skills may increase student ability to learn how to read and write.

Children learn oral language through what is “modeled” in their environment. At birth children begin learning speech sounds and patterns through social interaction. Children begin stringing sounds together to form words and sentences based what they hear in their environment. Children connect words to pictures and meaning to interpret the “noise.” A person’s genetic code plays a role in how they form and catalog these sounds and words into meaning. Children begin building their personal “dictionary” at birth through observations and interactions of their environment. Children catalog spoken verbiage with their understanding of the word(s). Children use their personal dictionary to process and comprehend spoken language. Children will attach “higher” functioning words to the simple words as they maturate, such as cut-carve and fun-merriment.


Children use their knowledge of spoken language to learn how to read written symbols and write words. Their knowledge of oral language helps them learn how to decode and encode words and sentences. Children edit their personal dictionary to include the written words of the cataloged spoken words. For example, I was raised on a farm and owned a flock of sheep. So, the subject of biology or science seemed easy to me until I had to sit in a formal biology class. Some of the verbiage or words used in the class to describe the subjects covered in biology class were foreign to me. I was able to transfer my verbal knowledge of the subject, which helped me to learn the “new” words used to described things that were already familiar to me. In addition, I often witness this in the classroom, as students are presented worksheets or exams that use “unfamiliar” words for things that students are already familiar with. Individuals continue to edit their dictionary to accommodate new oral and written information as they maturate.

Instructional Notes of Grade 4 Writing Assignment-differentiating, scaffolding

I was substituting in a Grade 4 classroom at a Title 1 school, where most students qualified for free meals. I had substituted in this classroom a few times before, so I was familiar with their learning abilities. Many of the students were English second language (ESL) learners. Most of the students were at-risk for literacy.

The regular classroom teacher had left the task of independently reading a passage and drawing a picture or writing a summary about the passage. Since I was familiar with the learning abilities present in this class, I chose to have students (voluntarily) take turns reading the passage. This may have created some confusion as most could not read the passage fluidly. When we finished reading the passage, I ask them to begin drawing or writing their interpretation of the passage. I usually let students work independently on the assignment before beginning to verbally work through the assignment. (The tricky thing about being a substitute is that it’s not really your job to teach, more to facilitate. Most of the time unless you have the ability to visit a classroom multiple times you do not know the learning capabilities of the students.)

After about 5 or so minutes, most of the students seemed to be lost in how to interpret the passage. I began verbally rereading the passage, one or two sentences at time. I then asked students to verbally explain what the read sentences meant. Students were still struggling, so I began to break down the sentences in phrases and words. I learned that students did not know the meaning of key words. I found myself explaining snow-capped rooves and other items within the passage to help them understand the meaning. I used pictures and the dictionary as sources to help students learn how to research the meaning. Most students were then able to draw a picture of the passage. And one or two students were able to translate their picture into words. I asked those students that were able to translate their pictures into words to read their interpretation of the passage. I used those words/sentences about the passage as examples that I wrote on the board. Students who were still struggling to write their own translation of the passage were allowed to copy, this helps to develop brain connections for writing words. As the lesson moved along students began to relax, which allowed them to process the information into the form necessary to accomplish the task.

Instructional Notes—Analysis of the Lesson
I had taken for granted that most of the students in this classroom would know the meaning of most of the words. The words were of things present in the community. The passage was talking about snowcapped roofs, chimneys, shapes of houses, and fireplaces. Many individuals in this community use fireplaces and wood stoves to heat their home and there is a ski resort within an hour of school.

Students initial lack of understanding could be derived from multiple issues. Students may not have learned the name of those things described in the passage in their native language, in English, or in both their native language and English. Students may also have learning issues that impede them from translating written words into their own words. This may have been the first time for some students to translate a passage into a picture or into their own words.

My point is students should have the opportunity to reverse, learn or review, and then regroup before moving forward again. Many students need to be shown and reshown and reshown how to accomplish a task. Often students need the task broken down into manageable parts, many will focus on the portion that they cannot accomplish and because of anxiety of that part will not accomplish the parts they can do. Most students do not want you to do the work for them. Students usually will begin writing their own words, after many opportunities to practice. It takes time to develop the brain connections necessary for fluid writing.

Literacy Instruction

The English language is more opaque than transparent. This makes learning how to read and write the spoken language seem more like taking a walk down a twisty, hard to navigate path that features many unmarked opportunities to walk in other directions. To better navigate the difficult path of learning how to read and write, scholars like Noah Webster simplified and organized literacy instruction. When America was separating from Britain and developing their own education system.

Webster (1790) saw that the strength of the United States was dependent on the education of its youth. He believed that language arts is the center piece of educating America’s youth. His patriotism led him to remold the education of young people. He believed that every young person, no matter their social economic status, sex, or cultural heritage should be educated.

Webster, a teacher while earning his college degree, witnessed that learning literacy was a challenge for the youth of America. Webster set out to improve the separate entities of language, both spoken and written. He simplified and regulated the spelling of words, utilizing didactical marks for punctuation; this method eased the learning of spelling and pronunciation (Webster, 1843). Webster (1843) also noted that spoken language involved the correct articulation of words utilizing an intricate team of the throat, tongue, palate, teeth, and lips. He believed that teachers should be looked upon to model correct articulation and to correct students on the spot in order to ensure correct articulation of words spoken or read.

Webster (1843) also believed that written language was a way to communicate a variety of thoughts, and to be utilized in a global sense that could be transported from place to place. Webster saw grammar as the science of organizing words together, utilizing firm rules that were seen as a model of organized language in order to communicate effectively. He developed and used a systematic, sequential, letter-based or a phonics approach to teaching reading and writing.

Educators today continue to develop instructional curriculum and tools to ease literacy instruction and student practice of literacy. During a recent webinar, I was reminded of an instructional tool that can ease the instruction and learning of spelling vowel sounds. The tool helps to bring better transparency of the English language. This chart titled, The Spelling Chart (Moats/LETRS) was developed by Dr. Lousia Moats. It is part of her literacy instructional program LETRS. The chart displays the different spellings of 19 vowels sounds, like the long ā sound can be spelled as make, rain and vein or the short sound ŭ can be spelled cup, flood and tough.

References
Moats, L. (2019). Hard words: what teachers don’t know about teaching reading and what to do about it, pg 26, the vowel spelling chart. Voyager Sopris Learning, 2019 Webinar Series
Webster, N. (1790). Collection of essays and fugitive writings on moral, historical, political and literary subjects. Boston: Fauet’s Statue.
Webster, N. (1843). An improved grammar of the English language. New York: Webster & Clark

Grouping Students for Instruction

Meeting the instructional needs of all students is a bit overwhelming!  There are some instructional approaches that can help teachers to better meet the challenge.  One approach is teaching students in small groups, 4 to 6 students.  Student groups can be developed using different formulas based on the intended outcome of the small group instruction.  Small groups allow for more “intimate” or one-on-one conversation that help you, the teacher form a better idea of their academic and social needs.  They also allow teachers to monitor and or scaffold student interactions, like collaboration or discussions.  Every student wants their voice heard; each student needs to learn how to listen to others.  Small group instruction gives the teacher opportunity to teach focused lessons that may include a new task or reteaching of a previous task.  Small group instruction also allows for the other groups of students to practice a task, new or old. 

Some of the reasons that I develop groups of students are to:

  • Develop social skills, usually 2-4 students
  • Group projects, can be efficient with 2-6 students depending on the project to be completed  
  • Learning level instruction—most classrooms will have 3-5 different learning levels for math and reading, 4-6 students, grouped by data
  • Reviewing
  • Introducing

When working with a new group of students, I often use different ways of building groups, such as student choice, drawing names, or numbering students.  When grouping students by ability to teach, I tend to focus on the data—current assessments and observations.  I usually ask the following questions when I group or regroup students.

  1. What is the activity?
  2. What should the final outcome look like?
  3. How will students react to the task?
  4. What is the learning level of students? Will they need help in completing the task?  Who would be most helpful to those needing assistance?  Not completing the task for them, but leading them to the completion of the task.
  5. Who will be here for the lesson? Most classrooms have students entering and exiting the classrooms throughout the day.
  6. How will students work together?
  7. How many “parts” to the task? I asked this question when grouping students for group projects. 

When grouping students remember that each group is growing and may need adjusting along the way.

Structure Literacy, Pillars 5 & 6

Pillar 5 of structured literacy instruction is syntax or the study of sentence structure.  The principles that dictate the sequence and function of words in a sentence.  These principles are also referred to as the mechanics, grammar, and variation of a sentence.  The more common parts of a sentence are:

  • Verb-describes the action
  • Adverb-modifies a verb, helps to clarify or further define a verb      Example: warmly, quiet, loudly, today, outside
  • Noun-person, place or thing
  • Adjective-modifies a noun, adjusts the meaning or further defines the noun to better clarify the meaning                                                                        Example: beautiful, dark, old
  • Article-modify a noun, like an adjective Example: a, an, the
  • Preposition-usually precedes a noun and in relation to another word      Example: at, in, on, with, for, about, after, of
  • Conjunction-connecting words, they connect clauses and sentences Example: and, but, if                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           One form of syntax is sentence diagramming.

See the source image

commons.wikimedia.org

Pillar 6 of structured literacy is semantics or study of the meaning of words, symbols, and units of words.  A person’s lexicon stores the meaning of words, symbols, and units of words—vocabulary.  People begin to develop their lexicon at birth. Individuals attach meaning to tones of sound.  These meanings are adjusted as individuals are introduced to new tones or meanings.  Individuals transfer the meaning of tones (voice) to symbols (print) as they learn how to read and write.  To better understand words and groups of words teachers often use concept maps to examine the definition of a word.   Students identify the related synonyms and antonyms of the word.  Students often identify or attach pictures to a word or groups of words.  Semantics assist in attaching inferred meaning to written and oral verbiage.  Semantics can include morphology.

References

Birsh, J.R. (2011). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills.  Baltimore:  Paul H. Brookes Pub Co.

Henry, Marcia K. (2010).  Unlocking literacy effective decoding and spelling instruction.   Baltimore:  Paul H. Brookes Pub Co.

International Dyslexia Association, dyslexiaida.org/what-is-structured-literacy/

Moats, L. (2000). Speech to print. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Pub Co.

 

What is Structure Literacy Instruction – Pillars 1 & 2

Structured literacy instruction includes six pillars or parts of language development-oral and written.  Structured literacy instruction is taught explicitly and systematically, beginning with Pillar 1. Structured literacy may be used to teach literacy at all levels of instruction, such as Tier 1-general classroom, Tier 2-intervention usually taught in small groups, Tier 3-intervention usually taught in one-on-one group setting, or special education.  The number of levels for instruction in a RTI model may be different for each school, depending on the learning needs of the current students and the available resources.

Pillar 1 is phonology, the study of spoken sounds (phonemes)—rules of how sounds are encoded, such as why these sounds follow this pattern to form this sound(s). Individuals should have phoneme awareness skills before learning how to read.  This is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulated individuals sounds in spoken words.  Phoneme awareness is part of phonological awareness.  Phonological awareness is the ability to process and manipulate letter sounds, rhyming words, and segmenting of sounds within words. The study of phonology usually increases student ability to spell, pronounce, and comprehend written words. 

Pillar 2 is sound-symbol correspondences or the relationship(s) between phoneme(s) and grapheme(s).  This may be referred to as phonics instruction that teaches predictable or the constant rules of sound-symbol correspondences to produce written language.  At this stage students learn one-on-one correspondence, for example the written letter B represents this phoneme or sound.  Students begin decoding and encoding words as they begin to learn the sound-symbol correspondences.  Student knowledge of the phoneme(s) and grapheme(s) relationships usually increases student ability to read, comprehend, and spell written language.

I will include pillars 3 and 4 of structured literacy instruction in my next post.

References

Birsh, J.R. (2011). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills. Baltimore:  Paul H. Brookes Pub Co.

Henry, Marcia K. (2010).  Unlocking literacy effective decoding and spelling instruction.  Baltimore:  Paul H. Brookes Pub Co.

International Dyslexia Association, dyslexiaida.org/what-is-structured-literacy/

Moats, L. (2000). Speech to print. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Pub Co.

Oral Language Development-Phonological Awareness56

Phonological awareness skills are developed through a child’s environment.  Children are learning what types of words to use for particular situations, based on “modeled” oral language. Children are forming their natural responses to the words heard, based on the responses heard.  Children are learning how to form words and sentences based upon what they are hearing throughout their day.  I will also argue that children learn how to form verbal responses based on more than their sense of hearing.  Children also form language through touching, seeing, smelling, and tasting.  Individuals have different types of environmental influence that assist in developing their oral language. 

There are different “layers” of influence in developing oral language or verbiage that becomes written language.  The first influence is the home.  The second influence is where the child spends most of their day—school, daycare, etc.  The third layer is those brief encounters with other individuals that may occur during the day, such as listening to a store clerk.  In today’s world, “the media/technology” has also become a factor in language development.  The amount of exposure/interaction time dictates the amount of influence.  The amount of natural phonological awareness skills that a student possesses when entering the formal classroom depends on the exposure within the different layers of language development.

Phonological awareness is the ability to process letter sounds, rhyming words, and segmenting letters within words.  These skills may be purposely taught throughout the day before children arrive at school or formal education.  Simply stopping and helping a child sound out the correct pronunciation of a word—segmenting each sound, such as /c/ /a/ /t/ is a form of phonological awareness development.  Reading a book that emphasizes the alphabet and adding the sound of the letter is another form of phonological awareness development.  Reading poetry or books that included rhyming words—Dr. Suess—is a form of phonological awareness development.  Formal or purposeful education of phonological awareness is usually woven within a child’s formal education.     

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